REESE  LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived .        c7^^-.  . 

Accession  No.  /^  */ O 3    .   C/.ns  No 


PORT-KOYAL  EDUCATION 


SAINT-CYRAN;    ARNAULD ;    LANCELOT;    NICOLE;    DE  SACI  ; 
GUYOT  ;  COUSTEL  ;  FONTAINE  ;  JACQUELINE  PASCAL 


EXTRACTS,   WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION, 

BY 

FELIX  CADET 

INSPECTOR  GENERAL   OF  PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION 


TRANSLATED,    WITH  AN  INDEX,  BT 

ADNAH  D.  JONES 


NEW   YORK 
CHAS.    SCRIBNER'S 

1898 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION.— Origin  of  the  Petites  Ecoles  of  Port-Royal — Ideas 
of  Saint-Cyran  on  Education — His  collaborators,  Lemaitre, 
de  Saci,  Fontaine — The  real  masters  :  Lancelot,  Nicole, 
Guyot,  and  Coustel — Analysis  of  their  works — Wallon  de 
Beaupuis,  Arnauld  .  .  ,  .  1 

Of  the  education  of  girls  at  Port-Royal  according  to  the 
constitution  of  the  monastery  and  the  rule  of  Jacqueline 
Pascal  .  .  .  ...  46 

Reasons  which  led  to  the  closing  of  the  schools  and  the 
destruction  of  Port-Royal — General  criticism  .  .  58 


EXTRACTS. 

SAINT-CYRAN. — Origin  of  the  Petites  Ecoles  .  69 
LANCELOT. — Charity  of  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  towards  children        .      71 

LANCELOT. — Saint-Cyran's  literary  theory  .  82 
DE  BEAUPUIS. — Regulations  for  the  school  of  Le  Chesnai    .        .      86 

DE  SACI.— Letter  on  Education                  .  .  92 

FONTAINE. — Conversation  between  Pascal  and  M.   de  Saci  on 

Epictetus  and  Montaigne                 .  .  95 

LANCELOT. — A  new  method  of  learning  to  read  .  .        .110 

Of  the  Verb             .                .  .  .     Ill 

ARNAULD. — Questions  of  grammar             .  .  .        .117 

ARNAULD. — Regulation  of  studies              .  .  .     123 

NICOLE. — Design  of  the  New  Logic            .  .  .     128 

Reply  to  the  principal  objections  .  .        .132 

Of  bad  reasoning  in  civil  life      .  .  .     139 

Rules  of  the  method  in  the  sciences  .  .        .152 


iv  Table  of  Contents. 


GUYOT. — On  teaching  reading  and  writing.     Exercises  in  transla- 
tion, elocution,  and  composition  .  .         .154 
NICOLE. — General  views  on  the  education  of  a  Prince          .        .167 
Special  advice  concerning  studies               .'  .         .171 
Of  the  means  of  preserving  peace  with  men         .        .181 
ARNAULD. — Eulogy  on  Descartes'  philosophy             .  .        .193 
COUSTEL. — Rules  for  education        .            .                ...     201 

Of  civility  and  politeness  in  children      .  .        .211 

ARNAULD. — On  the  persecutions  of  Port-Royal         .  .        .218 

MERE  AGNES. — Constitutions  of  the  monastery  of  Port-Royal     .     221 
JACQUELINE  PASCAL. — Regulations  for  the  children  of  Port-Royal    226 
BESOGNE. — Sister  Anne  Eugenie,  mistress  of  the  boarders    .        .     245 
NICOLE. — A  recreation  at  Port-Royal          .  ...     247 

APPENDIX. — A  study  of  the  writers  of  Port-Royal  by  Father 

Bouhours  .  .  .  ...     249 

INDEX  .  256 


PORT-ROYAL  EDUCATION. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  Petites  Ecoles  of  Port-Eoyal  had  but  a  short  and  troubled 
existence.  Their  foundation  goes  back  to  the  year  1637,1  but 
their  real  organization  only  dates  from  1646.  Several  times 
broken  up  in  consequence  of  theological  disputes  excited  by 
Arnauld,  or  because  of  the  war  of  the  Fronde,  they  were  finally 
closed  by  the  king's  command  in  March,  166 1.2 

They  hold,  nevertheless,  an  honourable  place  in  the  history 
of  pedagogy.  If  they  lasted  but  a  short  time  they  shed  a 
brilliant  light,  and  exercised,  as  much  by  the  character  and 
talents  of  the  masters  as  by  the  reform  in  methods  of  teaching 
and  the  books  which  they  produced,  a  considerable  influence, 
which  on  certain  points  is  still  active. 

The  first  idea  of  their  foundation  belongs  to  the  illustrious 
Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  abbe  of  Saint-Cyran.3  He  was  so  pro- 
foundly moved  by  the  importance  of  the  education  of  the  young, 
that  he  did  not  scruple  to  apply  to  this  work  the  saying  in  the 

1  In  1637  we  see  the  beginning  of  this  celebrated  community  of  recluses, 
which  was  formed  outside  the  monastery  of  Port- Royal,  and  which  brought 
up  in  the  knowledge  of  letters  and  the  practice  of  Christian  piety  a  few 
children  of  good  birth,  whose  parents  wished  to  spare  them  the  irregularities 
which  were  too  general  among  young  men  attending  college.    (Preface  to  the 
Necrologe  de  Port-Royal.) 

2  The  nuns  were  allowed  to  receive  boarders  again  from  1669  to  1679.  (See 
note  to  p.  47.) 

3  Born  at  Bayonne  in  1581,  he  was  appointed  to  the  Abbey  of  Saint- 
Cyran,  in  La  Brenne,  "a  desert  country  where  everything  was  lacking,"  said 
Lancelot  (Mem.  sur  M.  de  Saint-Cyrany  t.  i.  p.  288),  on  the  frontiers  of 
Touraine,  Berry,  and  Poitou. 


Port-Royal  Education. 


gospel  referring  to  salvation  :  "But  one  thing  is  needful"  In  his 
eyes  the  well-being  of  families,  of  the  State  and  of  the  Church 
had  its  source  and  origin  in  this;  all  irregularities  had  no  other 
origin  or  cause  than  bad  education.  Thus  ,he  thought  no 
expressions  sufficiently  strong  to  condemn  the  negligence  of 
parents  in  respect  to  this,  nor  any  commendations  sufficiently 
high  to  praise  the  devotion  of  persons  who  dedicated  themselves 
to  the  education  of  young  children.  "There  is  no  occupation," 
he  said,  "  more  worthy  of  a  Christian  in  the  Church,  there  is  no 
greater  charity  after  the  sacrifice  of  one's  life.  .  .  .  The  guidance 
of  the  most  tender  soul  is  a  greater  thing  than  the  government  of 
a  world."  He  was  indignant,  as  if  it  were  an  absurdity  and  a 
folly,  at  men  seeking  after  the  positions  of  seneschal  and  master 
of  the  stables,  and  looking  upon  the  education  of  reasonable 
creatures  as  the  lowest  employment.1 

"I  confess,"  he  said  to  Fontaine,  "that  I  should  consider  it 
a  religious  duty  if  I  could  be  of  use  to  children."  "I  should  have 
been  delighted  to  pass  my  whole  life  in  it,"  he  wrote  to  Lancelot. 
At  the  period  when  Vincent  de  Paul  began  to  devote  himself 
to  the  work  of  the  Foundling  Hospital,  Saint-Cyran  had  for 
a  moment  "the  desire  of  sending  far  and  wide  to  collect  young 
orphans  in  order  to  rear  them  in  his  abbey."  In  fine,  when  his 
ideas  were  more  settled,  his  scheme  was  simpler,  and  it  would 
require  all  the  decision  of  Father  Kapin  to  arouse  in  him  the 
least  ambition  of  taking  the  education  of  the  young  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Jesuits.  The  letter  that  he  wrote  from  the  prison  of 
Vincennes  speaks  of  a  sort  of  "nursery  for  the  Church,"  in  which 
he  would  have  brought  up  "six  children  chosen  throughout  the 

1  It  has  required  much  time  to  change  men's  ideas  on  this  point.  Two 
hundred  years  after  Saint-Cyran,  Channing  notes  with  pleasure  the  progress 
made  :  ' '  Men  are  beginning  to  understand  the  dignity  of  the  schoolmaster. 
The  idea  is  dawning  on  us  that  no  employment  is  comparable  to  that  of 
the  education  of  the  young  in  importance  and  value.  That  the  talent 
of  training  the  young  in  energy,  truth,  and  virtue  is  the  first  of  all  the  arts 
and  sciences,  and  that  consequently  the  encouragement  of  good  masters  is 
the  most  sacred  duty  that  society  has  to  fulfil  towards  itself."  (CEuvres 
Sociales,  trans.  Laboulaye,  p.  177.)  Our  schoolmasters  ha  ye  no  longer  to 
strive  against  the  indifference  and  contempt  of  society  ;  they  have  to  guard 
themselves  against  the  feeling  of  pride  that  their  new  position  in  public 
opinion  might  cause  in  them.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  they  will  preserve 
the  sympathy  of  everyone. 


Introduction. 


city  of  Paris."  In  a  conversation,  related  by  Lancelot,  referring 
to  another  school  which  he  was  to  entrust  to  M.  Singlin,  Saint- 
Cyran  said  "that  he  was  far  from  making  grand  plans,  that  he 
did  not  wish  to  do  anything  brilliant,  and  that  he  should  be 
contented  to  bring  up  there  a  dozen  children  at  most  in  Christian 
virtue."  (Lancelot,  Memoir -es,  t.  i.  p.  291.) 

His  arrest  and  detention  at  Yincennes  from  1638  to  the  death 
of  Richelieu,  whom  he  survived  but  a  few  months,  did  not 
permit  him  to  carry  out  this  modest  plan.  He  had  to  restrict 
himself  to  personal  efforts  on  several  occasions,1  but  especially 
to  excite,  by  his  example  and  exhortations,  devotion  as  dis- 
interested as  his  own,  but  better  guided,  and  therefore  more 
efficacious.  He  sometimes  said  that  he  would  have  gone  to  the 
world's  end  to  find  a  competent  master.  (Lancelot,  t.  i.  p.  129.) 

Sain t-Cy ran,  then,  was  really  the  inspirer  and  mover  of  the 
pedagogic  work  of  Port-Royal,2  and  there  is  a  real  interest  in 
carefully  seeking  out  his  principal  ideas  on  education. 

I  purposely  set  aside  all  his  theological  principles  on  the 
original  fall  of  man,  on  the  natural  corruption  of  human  nature, 
on  the  eternal  damnation  of  infants  dying  unbaptized,  and  all 
the  consequences  which  he  logically  deduces  from  them  as  to 
the  end  of  education,  and  the  direction  to  be  given  to  it. 
Modern  pedagogy  is  a  secular  science  which  must  not  wear 
the  garb  of  any  religious  system.  It  cannot  accept  discussion 
on  this  ground,  which  has  only  a  purely  historical  interest. 
Its  starting-point  is  different,  as  is  also  its  end.  The  child  is, 


.  l  We  see  him  in  prison  educating  the  young  child  of  a  poor  widow. 
Lancelot  (t.  i.  p.  133)  shows  him  to  us  engaged  in  educating  the  two  sons  of 
the  lieutenant  of  whom  he  had  much  to  complain  on  account  of  his  ill- 
treatment. 

2  We  read,  nevertheless,  in  the  supplement  to  the  Nicrologe  de  Port- 
Royal,  p.  398:  "The  establishment  of  the  Petites  Scales  de  Port-Royal 
was  due  to  the  solicitation  of  this  illustrious  magistrate  (Jerome  Bignon). 
M.  de  Saint-Cyran  had  often  conversed  with  him  about  his  views  on  the 
Christian  education  of  children,  and  M.  Bignon,  after  having  long  pressed 
him  to  put  them  in  execution,  demanded,  as  a  tribute  due  to  their  mutual 
friendship,  that  the  pious  abbe  should  undertake  to  bring  up  his  sons, 
Jerome  and  Thierri  Bignon,  in  a  Christian  manner.  It  was  on  their  behalf 
that  the  Petites  £coles  were  started  outside  Port- Royal  de  Paris  by  MM. 
Lancelot  and  De  Saci,  while  their  sister,  Marie  Bignon,  was  educated  within 
the  convent. " 


4  Port- Royal  Education. 

in  its  view,  a  personality  necessarily  imperfect,  in  which  good 
and  evil  are  mingled,  and  not  a  child  of  perdition,  as  Guyot 
said,  who  must  be  snatched  from  the  devil.  It  takes  seriously, 
but  not  tragically,  this  severe  and  delicate  work  of  education 
that  Saint-Cyran  calls  "  a  tempest  of  the  mind."  (Letter  to  M. 
de  Eebours.)  It  does  not  consider  that  the  chief  object  of 
education  is  to  preserve  baptismal  innocence  in  children  by 
withdrawing  them  from  the  world  and  even  from  their  families, 
to  work  solely  for  their  salvation,  and,  by  preference,  within 
the  walls  of  a  cloister.  It  proposes  to  develop  in  them  the 
knowledge  of  truth  and  the  practice  of  virtue,  to  prepare  them 
to  fulfil  the  various  duties  that  await  them  in  life,  profoundly 
convinced  that  the  surest  way  of  fulfilling  our  destiny,  whatever 
r  it  may  be,  is  first  to  act  our  part  as  men. 

Saint-Cyran  demands  in  the  first  place  that  the  family  should 

completely  cede  its  rights  to  him.     If  he  undertakes  the  charge 

y      of  a  child,  he  wishes  "to  be  entirely  its  master " ;  whether  it 

be  the  son  of   the  Duchesse  de  Guise,   or  the  child  of  a  poor 

'  cabinetmaker,  this  condition  is  a  sine  qua  non.1 

Then  he  attaches  a  very  great  importance  to  the  choice  of 
his  scholars,  to  discerning  whether  they  are  apt  for  study,  or 
fit  only  for  manual  labour.  "It  is  very  remarkable,"  observes 
Lancelot  with  some  reason  (t.  ii.  p.  194),  "that  he  is  in  no- 
wise guided  by  their  natural  abilities  in  making  this  distinction, 
but  by  the  seeds  of  virtue  which  he  sees  that  God  has  sown 
in  their  hearts."  A  young  child,  eight  or  nine  years  old,  who 
appeared  a  prodigy  of  intellect,  had  been  put  into  Lancelot's 
hands.  Saint-Cyran  in  prison  wished  to  see  him,  and  on  the 
statement  of  his  master  that  nothing  had  been  observed  in  him 
that  proceeded  from  corruption,  but  only  a  strange  eagerness 
for  knowledge,  joined  to  great  inquisitiveness  and  an  ardent 

1  Mme.  de  Maintenon  dreads  the  influence  of  the  family  no  less.  She 
writes  to  Mme.  de  la  Maine,  March  5th,  1714  :  "  The  first  impressions  given 
to  children  in  most  houses  are  almost  always  vicious  ;  we  see  them  come 
to  us  untruthful,  thieves,  and  deceitful  ....  They  must  be  shown  that 
we  know  very  well  that  they  have  seen  these  things  done  in  their  families, 
but  that  they  must  not  do  them  any  more."  The  girls  of  Saint-Cyran 
could  only  see  their  relations  once  every  three  months  for  half  an  hour  at 
most. 


Introduction.  5 


desire  to  obtain  advantages,  "he  decided  off-hand  that  it  was 
not  at  all  necessary  to  put  him  to  study,  and  this  was  absolutely 
carried  out."  He  added  that  "sometimes  out  of  a  hundred 
children  not  one  ought  to  be  put  to  study."  His  fear  was 
lest  he  should  burden  the  Church  with  a  number  of  people 
whom  she  had  not  called,  and  the  State  with  a  multitude  of 

/  idle  persons  who  thought  that  they  were  above  everybody  because 
they  knew  a  little  Latin,  and  who  considered  themselves  dis- 
honoured by  following  the  profession  in  which  their  birth  would 
have  placed  them.  Those  only  in  whom  great  docility  and  sub- 

./mission,  with  some  mark  of  piety  and  an  assured  virtue,  had  been 
perceived  ought  to  receive  intellectual  culture.1 

"We  shall  not  be  surprised  that  he  paid  little  attention  to\ 
physical  education.  Christian  spirituality  has  been  too  much  in 
fault  in  regarding  the  body  as  the  origin  of  the  passions,  and 
of  irregularities  of  conduct,  and  as  an  enemy  to  be  fought  and 
mastered;  it  was  the  Kenaissance,  that  is  to  say,  the  return  to 
classical  antiquity,  which  enlarged  the  domain  of  pedagogy  and 
restored  their  due  share  to  hygiene,  games,  and  physical  exercises. 
Rabelais  and  Montaigne  in  the  sixteenth  century,  Locke  in  the 
seventeenth,  Rousseau  in  the  eighteenth,  Hufeland  in  the  nine- 
teenth, brought  about  the  success  of  this  salutary  reaction,  and 
convinced  educators  that  it  was  necessary  to  attend  to  the  child's 
health  before  thinking  of  his  intellectual  and  moral  culture. 
These  pre-occupations  of  modern  pedagogy  seem  scarcely  to  have 
attracted  the  attention  of  Saint-Cyran,  who  was  too  much 
engrossed  by  his  religious  ideas.  Only  one  passage,  and  that  of 
small  importance,  has  a  bearing  on  the  method  of  feeding.2 

But  he  seems  to  me  to  have  very  well  understood  the  necessity 

1  Our  ideas  are  broader  and  more  generous,  and  we  open  the  book  of 
knowledge  to  all.     There  is  nothing  better  or  more  necessary  for  the  proper 
working  of  our  political  institutions  ;  but  it  would  be  wise  also  not  to  cast 
all  minds  in  the  same  mould,  and,  in  order  to  make  enlightened  citizens, 
not  to  inspire  them  with  a  distaste  for  manual  labour.     Our  curricula,  well 
filled,  too  uniform,  and  not  sufficiently  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  various 
localities,  are,  perhaps,  not  irreproachable  in  this  respect. 

2  He  recommends,  in  a  conversation  with  Lemaitre,  the  watching  over  the 
inclinations  of  children  which  tend  towards  "idleness,  untruthfulness,  and 
eating,  on  account  of  their  constitution  which  demands  it"  and  the  accustoming 
them  "  to  eat  all  kinds  of  vegetables,  cod-tish,  and  herrings." 


6  Port-Royal  Education. 


of  not  overpressing  the  child  by  too  early  intellectual  labour. 
"  I  should  think  I  had  done  a  great  deal,"  he  says  very  sensibly, 
"  although  I  had  not  advanced  them  much  in  Latin  up  to  the  age 
of  twelve  years,  by  causing  them  to  spend  their  early  years  in  the 
close  of  a  house  or  monastery  in  the  country,  and  by  giving  them 
all  the  pastimes  suitable  to  their  age."  The  monastery  excepted, 
this  reminds  us  of  the  negative  education  extolled  by  Kousseau. 

Saint-Cyran  sacrificed  intellectual  to  moral  education  too  much. 
"He  remarked,"  said  Lancelot  (t.  ii.  p.  195),  "that,  generally 
speaking,  knowledge  did  more  harm  than  good  to  the  young. 
And  once  he  made  me  attentively  consider  this  saying  of  St. 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  who  said  that  the  sciences  had  entered  the 
Church,  like  the  flies  in  Egypt,  to  cause  a  plague."  His  sombre 
and  exclusive  theory  ill  qualified  him  to  appreciate  literary 
beauties.  Is  it  not  strange  to  hear  him  say  seriously  during  a 
visit  to  Port-Koyal  to  the  children  who  were  studying.  Yirgil, 
"  You  see  that  author  ?  He  has  procured  his  own  damnation, 
yes,  he  has  procured  his  own  damnation,  in  making  these  beautiful 
verses,  because  he  made  them  through  vanity  and  for  glory ;  but 
you  must  sanctify  yourselves  in  learning  them,  because  you 
must  learn  them  to  please  God,  and  render  yourselves  fit  to  serve 
the  Church."  What  a  strange  idea !  To  study  like  "  a  college 
scapegrace,"  Eousseau  would  say,  the  fourth  book  of  the  ^Eneid, 
even  the  Eclogues  of  Alexis  and  Gallus  (Saci  and  Guyot  trans- 
lated these  works  for  their  pupils),  with  the  aim  of  pleasing  God 
and  serving  the  Church.  What  a  narrow  and  strained  conception 
of  the  utility  of  poetry.  Is  it  not  sufficient  to  justify  such  a  study 
that  it  purifies  the  taste,  ennobles  the  feelings,  and  excites 
admiration  by  the  contemplation  of  the  beautiful  1  What 
fanaticism  to  condemn  with  so  much  assurance  those  who  have 
rendered  us  this  eminent  service  by  their  masterpieces. 

Let  us  first  recommend  to  our  masters  for  the  teaching  of 
morality  the  precept  that  the  Mother  Agnes  recalls  to  the  memory 
of  a  sister  on  the  subject  of  religious  instruction,  "There  are 
some  truths  that  should  rather  be  felt  than  learnt."  (Lettres,  t.  ii. 
p.  444.)  What  practical  results  can  we  expect  to  obtain  if  we 
teach  duty  like  a  theorem  in  geometry  1  It  is  not  a  question 
of  setting  out  learned  abstractions,  logical  deductions,  or 


Introduction. 


\ 

methojdical  classifications.  The  heart  and  conscience  must  be 
educated,  moral  feeling  must  be  awakened  and  strengthened,  the 
love  of  what  is  good  must  be  inculcated,  good  habits  must  be 
formed.  Saint-Cyran  will  be  of  use  to  us,  especially  in  what 
concerns  moral  education. 

A  real  knowledge  and  a  sincere  love  of  children  inspired  these 
pedagogic  directions  which  I  sum  up  from  Lancelot :  Before  all 
things,  to  gain  their  confidence  by  a  calculated  gentleness,  by  a 
really  paternal  love,  and  a  seemly  familiarity ;  to  bear  their  faults 
and  weaknesses  patiently ;  to  show  still  more  charity  and  com- 
passion towards  those  who  are  seen  to  be  more  unformed  and 
backward ;  not  to  dishearten  them  by  a  too  severe  look  and  a  too 
imperious  manner ;  to  know  how  to  condescend  discreetly  to  their 
humour  for  a  time,  in  order  to  strengthen  these  young  plants, 
sometimes  even  to  ask  instead  of  commanding;  to  descend  to 
their  level  in  order  to  raise  them  to  our  own ;  to  watch  continually 
in  order  to  preserve  these  tender  souls  from  evil,  sometimes  to 
punish  ourselves  for  their  faults,  for  which  we  should  always 
fear  we  may  be  partly  responsible,  either  through  hastiness  or 
negligence ;  to  pray  to  God  before  correcting  them,  in  order  not 
to  give  way  to  a  movement  of  ill-temper ;  to  warn  them  at  first 
only  by  signs,  then  by  words,  reprimands,  and  threats ;  to  deprive 
them  of  some  pleasures,  and  to  resort  to  corporal  punishment  only 
in  the  last  extremity ;  plus  prier  que  crier,  to  ask  rather  than 
scold,  he  said,  by  a  happy  play  of  words;  or,  to  sum  up  all  in 
the  formula  that v  pleased  him,  to  speak  little,  bear  with  much, 
and  pray  more.  But  for  him  the  principal  points  in  the  good 
education  of  children  were  the  good  example  to  be  set  them, 
together  with  perfect  order  in  the  school. 

Lemaitre,  the  great  orator,  the  first  of  the  solitaries  of  Port- 
Royal,  was  also  one  of  the  earliest  to  second  Saint-Cyran  in  the 
execution  of  his  projects,  The  young  Andilly  and  Saint- Ange 
were  entrusted  to  his  care.  A  touching  passage  in  the  Memoirs 
of  Dufosse  shows  him  at  work : — 

"I  remember  that,  scholar  though  I  was,  he  often  made  me 
go  to  his  room,  where  he  gave  me  very  solid  instruction  in 
studies  as  well  as  in  piety.  He  read  to  me,  and  made  me  read 


8  Port-Royal  Education. 

various  passages  from  the  poets  and  orators,  and  pointed  out  all 
their  beauties,  both  their  strong  sense  and  their  diction.  He 
taught  me  'also  to  read  verse  and  prose  as  they  should  be  read, 
which  he  did  admirably  himself,  having  a  pleasing  voice,  and 
all  the  other  qualities  of  a  great  orator.  He  also  gave  me  several 
rules  for  good  translation,  in  order  to  enable  me  to  advance  in 
it."1  It  is  well  known  that  he  took  charge  of  the  education  of 
Eacine. 

His  younger  brother,  M.  de  Saci,  who,  after  Saint-Cyran  and 
M.  Singlin,  was  the  director  of  Port-Eoyal,  took  part  incidentally 
in  the  teaching.  With  Lancelot,  Saint-Cyran  had  especially 
entrusted  him  with  the  education  of  the  two  sons  of  M.  Bignon. 
His  letter,  which  we  publish  under  the  title  of  Patience  and 
Silence,  is  an  admirable  page  of  pedagogy.  His  influence  on 
classical  studies  was  more  considerable  ;  to  him  we  owe  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Fables  of  Phsedrus,2  and  of  three  comedies  of 
Terence.3  It  is  to  be  noticed  with  what  "ingenious  charity"  the 
man  of  letters,  enamoured  with  noble  antiquity,  endeavours  to 
conciliate  the  cultivation  of  good  taste  with  respect  for  morality, 
and  the  quite  new  importance  that  he  attaches  to  the  study  of 
the  French  language.  "...  Many  persons  of  quality  complain 
nowadays  with  great  reason,"  says  he  in  the  preface,  "  that  when 
their  children  are  taught  Latin  it  seems  that  they  unlearn  French, 
and  that  in  aspiring  to  make  them  citizens  of  ancient  Home  they 
are  made  strangers  in  their  own  country  .  .  .  After  having  learnt 
Latin  and  Greek  for  ten  or  twelve  years  we  are  often  obliged  to 
learn  French  at  thirty." 

ly>  His  intellect,  full  of  fire  and  light,  with  a  certain  charm  and 
sprightliness,  and  his  especial  talent  for  poetry,  were  celebrated 
at  Port-Eoyal.  Fontaine  has  preserved  his  first  piece.  It  is  a 
letter  of  thanks,  half  prose,  half  verse,  to  his  mother  for  a 


1  Mtinoires  pour  servir  A  I'hist.  de  Port-  Boy  al,  1739,  p.  156. 

2  The  Fables  of  Phsedrus,   the  freedman  of  Augustus,   translated  into 
French  with  the  Latin  opposite,  to  serve  for  a  good  understanding  of  the 
Latin  tongue,  and  for  translating  well  into  French.  (1647.) 

3  The  Comedies  of  Terence  (Andria,  Adelphi,  Phormio),  translated  into 
French  and  rendered  with  propriety,  by  changing  very  little,  to  serve  for  a 
good  understanding  of  the  Latin  tongue,  and  for  translating  well  into  French, 
by  the  Sr.  de  Saint-  Aubin.  (Paris,  1647.) 


Introduction. 


present  of  four  purses  that  she  made  to  him  and  his  three 
brothers.  Forced  wit  and  an  affected  style  give  themselves  free 
scope.  "We  see  in  it,"  he  says,  "in  a  small  space,  the  most 
illustrious  prisoner  in  the  world  (gold) ;  and  our  hands  have 
enchained  him  who  disposes  of  the  liberty  of  all  men  : — 

"  That  superb  metal,  to  which  so  many  mortals 
Dedicate  so  many  vows,  raise  so  many  altars  ; 
Son  of  the  Sun  of  the  Heavens  and  Sun  of  the  earth,"  etc. 

The  four  purses,  of  different  colours,  are  compared  at  first  to 
a  beautiful  flower-bed,  then  to  the  whiteness  which  when  the  sun 
is  hidden  adorns 

"That  great  blue  veil  that  covers  all  the  sky"  ; 
then  to  the  lily  and  the  rose,  which 

' '  Both  redouble  their  natural  beauties  "  ; 

then  to  the  sun's  rays  on  the  "  soft  ivory  "  of  the  snow ;  at  last 
"  to  the  thousand  deep  red  roses  "  of  the-  dawn. 

"I  shall  always  admire  these  purses  as  marvels,  and  I  shall 
love  them  as  my  little  sisters,  since  they  are  in  some  sort  your 
daughters,  and  I  am  truly  your  very  humble  and  very  obedient 
son,  De  Saci." 

This  poetical  talent,  such  as  it  was,  was  utilized  in  1654  to 
reply  to  the  facetious  jests  of  the  Jesuits  in  their  almanack 
entitled,  The  Rout  and  Confusion  of  the  Jansenists.  De  Saci,  with 
the  applause  of  Arnauld1  (Saint-Cyran  would  have  energetically 
condemned  such  a  freak),  composed,  in  trifling  verses  of  eight 
feet,  the  Enluminures  de  Valmanacli  des  Jesuites.  I  will  only  quote* 
one  specimen,  which  has  at  least  the  historical  value  of  verifying 
how  superior  the  Jansenists  were  to  the  Jesuits  pen  in  hand  : — 

"  There  are  none,  even  your  booksellers, 
Who  do  not  value  your  adversaries, 
"Whose  fine  books  have  always, 
Notwithstanding  your  noise,  so  great  a  vogue. 

But  yours,  so  magnificent, 
Are  the  seniors  in  the  shops, 
And  always  stay  at  home 
As  if  they  were  in  prison. 

*  Arnauld  undertook,  at  a  great  expense  of  erudition  and  logic,  to  justify 
this  pamphlet,  in  his  Application  des  regies  dcs  Pbres  a  V almanack. 


io  Port- Royal  Education. 


Every  other  book  is  asked  for, 
Seen,  prized,  and  bargained  for  ; 
But  they  are  recluses, 
Whom  no  man  has  ever  seen. 
All  the  leaves  collected 
Are  ream  on  ream  piled  up 
And,  the  attics  being  full  of  them, 
They  are  the  guardians  of  the  shops. 

There  the  mice  run  over  the  pages 
Of  your  admirable  works, 
And  the  troop  of  noble  rats 
Make  them  their  food  and  their  good  dishes." 

(6th  illustration,  p.  24.) 

Naturally,  Lancelot  applied  to  de  Saci  to  versify  the  Garden  of 
Greek  Roots  (1657).  The  prologue  well  preserves  the  imprint  of 
its  author  : — 

"  Thou,  who  cherishest  the  learned  Greece, 

Where  of  old  wisdom  flourished  ; 

Whence  theological  authors 

Have  borrowed  their  sacred  terms 

To  be  of  our  great  mysteries 

The  august  depositaries, 

Enter  this  GARDEN,  not  of  flowers 

Which  have  only  useless  colours, 

But  of  nourishing  ROOTS 

Which  make  learned  minds." 

,-      In  truth,  de  Saci,  wholly  given  up  to  piety,  looked  with  some 

;  contempt  on  all  secular  studies,  and   thought  that  reading  the 

I  classical  authors  was  3angerous  for  those  who  could  not  "  pick  up 

I  some  pearls  from  the  dunghill,  whence  arose  even  a  hlack  smoke 

which  might  obscure  the  wavering  faith."     Religion  is  his  sole 

thought :  "  The  chief  end  of  education  ought  to  be  to  save  the 

children  and  ourselves  with  them."     We  see  him  in  his  admirable 

conversation  with  Pascal,  firm  and  intrenched  in  his  faith,  despise 

the   fine  -  drawn    reasoning    of   Epictetus   and    Montaigne,    and 

enthusiasm  for  science,    "those  dangerous  viands  served  up   on 

handsome  dishes"  to  people  "who  are  sleeping,  and  who  think 

they  eat  while  sleeping." 

Fontaine  describes  him  admirably  in  this  passage :  "No  one 
ever  saw  M.  de  Saci  take  an  interest  in  those  inquisitive  sciences 
(the  system  of  the  world  by  Descartes,  animal  -  machines). 


Introduction.  \  i 


Smiling  good-naturedly  when  anyone  spoke  to  him  of  these 
things,  he  showed  more  pity  for  those  who  paid  attention  to  them 
than  desire  to  attend  to  them  himself.  He  said  to  me  one  day, 
speaking  to  me  privately  on  the  subject,  that  he  wondered  at  the 
action  of  God  with  regard  to  these  new  opinions;  that  M. 
Descartes  was  with  respect  to  Aristotle  like  a  robber  who  came  to 
kill  another  robber  and  carry  off  his  booty;  that  Aristotle,  little  by 
little,  had  at  last  become  the  master  of  the  ministers  of  the 
Church.  '  I  saw  at  the  Sorbonne,'  he  said  to  me,  'and  I  could  not 
see  it  without  a  shudder,  a  doctor  who  quoted  a  passage  from  the 
Scriptures,  and  another  who  boldly  refuted  him  by  a  passage  from 
Aristotle.  .  .  .  Aristotle  having  usurped  such  authority  in  the 
Church,  was  it  not  just  that  he  should  be  dispossessed  and  over- 
thrown by  another  tyrant,  to  whom,  perhaps,  the  same  thing 
would  happen  one  day?"  (Memoires,  t.  iii.  p.  75.) 

What  a  narrow-minded  opinion,  and  what  a  prejudice  !  Sainte- 
Beuve  answers  him  roundly :  "  Jansenius  made  a  disturbance  in 
the  bosom  of  the  Church;  Descartes  made  a  revolution  every- 
where." (t.  iii.  p.  120.) 

We  recall  his  smart  paradox  on  the  inutility  of  travelling : 
"  Travelling  was  seeing  the  devil  dressed  in  every  fashion — 
German,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  English." 

De  Saci's  chief  work  was  his  translation  of  the  Bible,  of  which 
the  publication,  begun  in  1672,  was  not  finished  till  1707,  twenty- 
three  years  after  his  death.  Beading  and  meditating  on  the 
sacred  books,  and  making  their  reading  and  meditation  easier  for 
the  faithful,  was  the  chief  business  of  his  life.  "With  my 
Bible,"  said  he,  "  I  could  go  to  the  end  of  the  world."  It  is 
curious  and  interesting  to  mark  the  hesitation  and  the  scruples 
of  the  translator.  He  had  translated  at  first  in  a  style  that  his 
friends  thought  too  elevated,  and  then  too  bald.  He  set  to 
work  a  third  time,  trying  to  keep  a  middle  course.  Sainte-Beuve 
amends  the  cutting  sentence  of  Joubert,  "De  Saci  has  shaved, 
powdered,  and  curled  the  Bible,  but  at  least  he  has  not  rouged  it," 
by  this  sprightly  remark,  "It  would  suffice  to  say  that  he 
has  combed  it."  (t.  ii.  p.  362.)  The  celebrated  translator  passed 
judgment  on  himself  a  few  months  before  his  death  : — 

"I   have   endeavoured   to    remove   from   the   Holy   Scripture 


12  Port- Royal  Education. 


obscurity  and  inelegance ;  and  God  has  willed  until  now  that  His 
Word  should  be  enveloped  in  obscurities.  Have  I  not,  then, 
reason  to  fear  that  giving,  as  I  have  tried  to  do,  a  clear  version, 
and  one  perhaps  sufficiently  correct  with  regard  to  purity  of 
language,  is  resisting  the  designs  of  the  Holy  Spirit  ?  I  know  very 
well  that  I  have  not  aimed  at  the  graces  and  niceties  that  are 
admired  in  society,  and  that  might  be  sought  at  the  French 
Academy.  God  is  my  witness  how  much  horror  I  have  always 
had  of  these  ornaments.  .  .  .  But  I  cannot  hide  from  myself 
that  I  have  endeavoured  to  render  the  language  of  Scripture 
clear,  pure,  and  conformable  to  the  rules  of  grammar.  .  .  .  Shall 
I  not,  then,  have  reason  to  tremble  if  the  Holy  Ghost,  having  until 
now  set  aside  the  rules  of  grammar,  and  having  visibly  despised 
,  them,  I  now  take  the  liberty  of  reducing  it  to  these  rules  .  .  .  T' 
\(Fontaine,  Memoir es,  t.  iv.  pV^322.) 

Evidently  de  Saci  had  not  such  soundness  of  taste  as  he  had 
tenderness  of  conscience  and  ardour  in  devotion ;  but  with  these 
few  reservations,  how  much  admiration  this  pure  and  regular  life, 
so  enamoured  of  perfection,  so  lull  of  self-sacrifice  and  charity, 
deserves !  One  touching  trait  will  suffice  to  depict  this  noble 
soul.  When  he  came  out  of  prison  in  1668  what  will  it  be 
thought  that  he  demanded  of  the  friendship  of  Le  Tellier,  who 
was  afterwards  chancellor ?  "He  begged  him  to  use  his  influence 
with  the  king  to  obtain  permission  from  his  majesty  that  from 
time  to  time  persons  of  whose  fidelity  there  could  be  no  doubt 
should  go  to  the  Bastille  to  see  what  was  going  on  there,  in  order 
that  poor  prisoners  who  spend  years  there  without  anyone  even 
remembering  why  they  have  been  imprisoned,  should  not  be  left 
in  perpetual  oblivion."  (Leclerc.  Vies  interessantes,  t.  iv.  p.  56.) 

But  the  real  masters  of  Port-Eoyal  were  those  who  were 
entrusted  with  the  teaching  at  the  time  of  the  organization  of 
the  Petites  Ecoles  in  1646.  Lancelot  and  Nicole,  Guyot  and 
Coustel,  under  the  management  of  M.  Wallon  de  Beaupuis,  but 
in  reality  under  the  powerful  influence  of  Arnauld,  the  heir  to 
the  authority  of  Saint-Cyran  and  the  author  or  inspirer  of  most 
of  the  classical  books  of  Port-Eoyal. 

The  most  distinguished  master  was  Claude  Lancelot.  Of  all 
fthe  recluses  of  Port-Eoyal  he  devoted  himself  the  most  entirely 


Introduction.  1 3 


to  education,  and  composed  the  greatest  number  of  classical  works. 
He  was  born  at  Paris  about  1615.  Having  early  resolved  to 
devote  himself  to  God's  service,  he  entered  in  1627  the  com- 
munity of  Saint  Nicolas  du  Chardonnet,  where  he  remained  ten 
years  studying  the  fathers  of  the  Church,  and  regretting  that 
he  did  not  find  men  like  St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Ambrose,  and 
St.  Augustine.  "If  there  were  only  one,"  said  he,  "I  would 
start  at  once  and  go  and  seek  him,  even  to  the  world's  end, 
to  throw  myself  at  his  feet  and  receive  from  him  so  pure  and 
beneficial  a  guidance."  (Memoires,  t.  i.  p.  5.) 

It  was  then  that  he  heard  the  abbe*  of  Saint-Cyran  spoken 
of  as  a  man  of  the  early  centuries,  and  he  put  himself  under 
his  spiritual  direction  with  unbounded  submission  and  admiration. 
"  I  confess,"  he  said,  "  that  it  was  one  of  my  devotions  to  pause 
sometimes  and  contemplate  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  as  one  of  the 
most  living  images  of  Christ  that  I  had  ever  seen.  (Mem. 
t.  ii.  p.  204.) 

He  entered  Port-Royal  January  20,  1638,  a  few  months  before 
the  arrest  of  Saint-Cyran,  to  share  the  life  of  penitence  of  the 
early  solitaries,  then  not  very  numerous.  They  were  soon  obliged 
to  disperse,  but  in  order  not  to  abandon  the  task  that  had  been 
entrusted  to  him,  Lancelot  was  sent  to  La  Ferte-Milon  with 
M.  Yitard,  then  twelve  or  thirteen  years  old,  in  order  to  take 
charge  of  his  education.  On  his  return  to  Paris  in  October, 
1639,  he  started  for  the  abbey  of  Saint-Cyran,  whence  he 
returned  in  October,  1640,  to  take  charge  of  the  two  children 
of  M.  Bignon,  the  Advocate-General,  and  afterwards  of  a  little 
boy  whom  Saint-Cyran  sent  to  him,  the  care  of  whom  he  shared 
with  de  Saci  because  he  was  occupied  in  the  mornings  in  the 
sacristy  of  Port-Royal. 

He  published  in  1644  the  New  Method  of  Learning  the  Latin 
Tongue  with  Ease.  The  preface  and  the  address  to  the  reader 
state  precisely  the  reform  introduced  into  the  teaching.  The 
rules  are  given  in  French.  The  "minutiae  of  grammar"  are 
rejected.  "  I  have  been  careful  to  avoid  some  observations  that 
seemed  to  me  not  very  useful,  remembering  the  excellent  saying 
of  Quintilian,  that  it  is  part  of  the  science  of  a  really  skilful 
grammarian  to  know  that  there  are  some  tlii.pgs— thai:  are  n°t 

^^x 

*0*    THE         "J'V 

UNIVERSITY  1 

~~s 


14  Port-Royal  Edttcation, 

worth  knowing.  But  I  hope,"  he  adds,  "that  the  substantial 
and  judicious  remarks  of  these  authors,1  in  order  to  thoroughly 
understand  the  ground  of  the  Latin  language,  .  .  .  will  show 
with  how  much  reason  the  same  Quintilian  said  that  those  are 
I  very  much  deceived  who  laugh  at  grammar  as  a  low  and  despic- 
|  able  art,  since,  being  to  eloquence  what  the  foundation  is  to  the 
*  edifice,  if  it  is  not  firmly  established  in  the  mind  all  that  is  added 
to  it  afterwards  will  fall  to  the  ground."  He  praises  this  maxim 
of  Ramus :  "Few  rules  and  much  practice,"  an  excellent  recom- 
mendation that  Fenelon  supports  with  his  authority.2 
\  Thus  Lancelot  claims  to  do  in  six  months  what  Despautere 
would  take  three  years  to  do.  In  a  letter  to  Bussy,  Corbinelli 
advises  him  to  teach  his  daughter  Latin  by  the  method  of  Port- 
Royal :  "There  is  only  enough  for  a  fortnight."  (30  July,  1677.) 
Nothing  shows  that  this  was  a  joke  on  the  pretension  to  improvise 
knowledge.  It  is  only  a  rather  strong  illusion  of  an  admirer. 
Lancelot  had  charge  of  the  teaching  of  Greek  and  mathematics 
at  the  school  in  the  Rue  Saint-Dominique  de  1'Enfer  in  1646. 
He  gave,  in  1655,  the  New  Method  of  Learning  the  Greek  Language 
with  Ease.  M.  Egger,  a  very  competent  judge,  notes  the  marked 
advance  of  this  work  on  the  books  of  Clenard,  Vergara,  and 
Yossius  :  "  The  barbarous  quatrains  that  Lancelot  mixes  with  the 
rules  in  prose  in  his  methods  have  quite  gone  out  of  fashion  now. 
But,  then,  it  was  something  to  employ  the  French  language 
instead  of  Latin ;  it  was  something  to  have  set  out  the  declensions 
and  conjugations  at  greater  length ;  to  have  facilitated  the  effort  of 
memory  necessary  for  pupils  in  learning  the  vocabulary  of  a  dead 
language  by  the  choice  of  the  most  useful  words."  (De  Vhellen- 
isme  en  France,  vol.  ii.  p.  60.)  It  was  not  the  fault  of  Port- 
Royal  that  the  study  of  Greek  was  not  again  held  in  honour 

1  He  says  that  he  had  read  the  works  of  Sanctius,  a  celebrated  professor  of 
Salamanca,  of  Scioppius  and  Vossius,  learned  Dutchmen  (1577-1649);  he 
does  not  appeal  at  all  to  the  authority  of  the  Portuguese  Jesuit  Alvares, 
whose  grammar  Father  Rapin  accuses  him  of  copying,  but  without  showing 
any  proof  of  it.     (Mem.  Introduc.,  p.  125.) 

2  "The  great  point  is  to  bring  a  person  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  practical 
application  of  the  rules  by  frequent  use  ;   then  he  will  take  pleasure  in 
noticing  the  details  of  the  rules  that  he  followed  at  first  without  remarking 
them."    (Lettre  d  I'Acad&nie  Franqaise,  §  2.) 


Introduction. 


among  us.  We  know  with  what  success  Lancelot  imparted  the 
knowledge  of  this  language  and  the  taste  for  its  literature  to 
Racine. 

In  1657  appeared  the  Jardin  des  ratines  grecques.  It  would 
not  be  very  useful  to  pause  on  this  work,  which  would  not  interest 
our  readers.  The  learned  Diibner,  otherwise  a  great  partisan  of 
the  pedagogic  reforms  of  Port-Royal,  does  not  hesitate  to  call  itv 
"  Ostrogothic."  M.  Egger  declares  that  this  book,  by  its  errors! 
and  want  of  criticism,  "has  been  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  toi 
progress  in  grammatical  methods  among  us."  (De  Vhellenisme  en* 
France,  vol.  i.  p.  112.)  After  being  long  used  in  class,  it  was 
suppressed  by  a  ministerial  decree  of  December  4,  1863.  Two 
passages  in  the  preface  deserve  to  be  noticed.  One  relates  to 
Comenius  and  his  method,  Janua  linguarum  reserata  (the  gate  of 
languages  opened),  1631.  "A  work  estimable  in  itself,"  said 
Lancelot,  "but  not  sufficiently  proportioned  to  the  title  it  bears, 
and  the  intention  of  its  author."  After  having  tried  it,  he  thinks 
it  long  and  difficult,  without  interest  for  the  children,  and,  in  fine, 
of  very  little  use,  because  of  its  want  of  method.  There  is  a 
good  page  of  pedagogy  to  be  gathered  here. 

"Besides  requiring  an  extraordinary  memory  to,  learn  it,  and 
that  few  children  are  capable  of  it,  I  can  assert,  after  several 
experiments  that  I  have  made,  that  scarcely  any  are  able  to  retain 
it,  because  it  is  long  and  difficult  and,  the  words  being  never 
repeated,  they  have  forgotten  the  beginning  before  reaching  the 
end.  Thus  they  feel  a  constant  dislike  for  it,  because  they  always 
find  themselves,  as  it  were,  in  a  new  country,  where  they  recognize 
nothing :  the  book  is  filled  with  all  sorts  of  unusual  and  difficult 
words,  and  the  first  chapters  are  of  no  assistance  for  those  that 
follow;  nor  these  for  the  last,  because  there  is  no  word  in  one 
which  is  found  in  the  others."  And  he  adds,  with  his  consum- 
mate experience  in  teaching:  "What  might  be  called  the  Entrance 
to  languages  ought  to  be  a  short  and  easy  method  to  lead  us 
as  quickly  as  possible  to  the  reading  the  best  written  books, 
in  order  to  learn  not  only  the  words  that  we  lack,  but  also  what  is 
most  remarkable  in  the  turn  and  most  pure  in  the  phrase,  which 
is,  without  doubt,  the  most  difficult  and  most  important  part  in 
every  language/' 


1 6  Port- Royal  Education. 

The  other  judgment  is  not  so  well  founded  in  reason.  For  the 
etymologies,  he  quotes  especially  the  Origines  franfaises  of  M. 
Menage,  "who  alone  is  worth  a  multitude  of  authors,  because, 
besides  drawing  from  the  ancients,  he  has  carefully  collected  what 
the  most  able  men  of  our  own  times  have  that  is  curious  upon  this 
matter."  If  there  is  a  book  that  deserves  the  discredit  and 
oblivion  into  which  it  has  fallen,  it  is  assuredly  this  one.  The 
philological  caprices  of  Menage  have  passed  into  legends.  It  was 
easy  for  Father  Bouhours  to  amuse  himself  at  his  expense,  to  the 
great  delight  of  Mine,  de  Sevigne.1 

"  M.  Menage  especially  excels  in  etymologies,  he  says  with  lively 
raillery.  His  mind  seems  to  be  made  expressly  for  this  science; 
sometimes  he  even  seems  to  be  inspired,  so  lucky  is  he  in  dis- 
covering where  words  come  from.  For  example,  did  he  not  need 
a  sort  of  inspiration  to  discover  the  real  origin  of  jargon  and 
baragouin?  Jargon,  according  to  him,  comes  from  barbaricus. 
Here  is  its  genealogy  in  direct  line  :  barbarus,  barbaricus,  baricus, 
varicus,  uaricus,  guaricus,  guargus,  gargo,  gargonis,  JARGON. 
Baragouin  is  a  near  relation  of  jargon :  barbarus,  barbaracus, 
barbaracuinus,  baracuinus,  baraguinus,  BARAGOUIN.  Nothing  is 
clearer  nor  more  precise.  And  I  have  no  doubt  that  M.  Menage 
is  very  pleased  with  himself  at  this  new  discovery;  for  formerly 
he  did  not  think  that  jargon  and  baragouin  were  of  the  same 
country,  nor  came  from  the  same  stem.  He  insists,  in  his 
Origines  de  la  langue  fran$aise,  that  jargon  is  Spanish  and 
baragouin  Bas-breton,  ...  so  true  is  it  that  words  like  men  come 
from  where  one  wills.  However  this  may  be,  we  are  indebted 
to  M.  Menage  for  a  great  deal  of  similar  knowledge ;  it  is  he 
who,  with  that  faculty  of  divination  that  M.  de  Balzac  attributes 
to  him,  has  discovered  that  laquais  came  from  verna,  vernula, 
vernulacus,  vernulacaius,  lacaius,  laquay,  LAQUAIS  ;  that  boire  a 
tire-larlgot  came  from  fistula :  fistula,  fistularis,  fistularius,  fistu- 
laricus,  laricus,  laricotus,  LARIGOT.  .  .  All  that  is  very  fine  and 
curious." 

1  "  I  read  the  angry  books  of  Father  Bouhours,  the  Jesuit,  and  of  Manage, 
who  tear  each  other's  eyes  out  and  amuse  us.  They  say  what  they  think  of 
each  other,  and  often  insult  one  another.  There  are,  besides,  some  very  good 
remarks  on  the  French  language.  You  cannot  think  how  amusing  this 
quarrel  is."  (16  September,  1676.) 


Introduction.  1 7 


In  1660  Lancelot,  under  the  supervision  of  Arnauld,1  edited  one 
of  the  most  important  works  of  Port-Koyal,  the  Grammaire 
gnu' rale  et  raisonnee,  containing  the  grounds  of  the  art  of 
speaking,  explained  in  a  clear  and  natural  manner,  the  reason  for 
what  is  common  to  all  languages,  and  the  principal  differences  that 
are  met  with  in  them,  with  several  new  remarks  on  the  French 
language. 

This  compendious  but  incomplete  work  was  a  bold  conception 
for  the  time,  the  influence  of  Descartes  and  his  unflinching 
confidence  in  the  power  of  the  reason  are  felt  in  it.  It  incited 
the  researches  of  the  philosophical  grammarians  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  du  Marsais,  Duclos,  Condillac,  and  de  Tracy.  This  was 
the  best  that  could  be  done  until  the  discovery  of  Sanscrit,  with 
a  wider  knowledge  of  languages  and  their  filiation  and  history 
permitted  Grimm,  Humboldt,  Bopp,  Burnouf,  Diez,  Michel 
Breal,  and  Littre  to  substitute  the  sure  method  of  history, 
phonetics,  and  comparison  for  the  brilliant  but  barren  speculations 
of  philosophical  abstraction. 

If  we  no  longer  share  the  enthusiastic  admiration  of  the  worthy 
Kollin  for  this  work,  and  no  longer  see  the  sublime  genius  of  the 
great  man,  we  still  remain  struck  with  this  vigorous  spirit  of 
analysis  and  this  luminous  method. 

At  the  same  date  the  indefatigable  master,  under  the  name  of 
M.  de  Trigny,  completed  his  grammatical  teaching  by  giving  the 
Nouvelle  Methode  pour  apprendre  facilement  et  en  peu  de  temps  la 
langue  italienne,  and  the  Nouvelle  Methode  pour  apprendre  facile- 
ment et  en  peu  de  temps  la  langue  espagnole.  He  had  recourse  to 
the  learning  of  Chapelain  for  these  two  works.  The  second  was 
dedicated  to  the  Most  Serene  Infanta  of  Spain,  Donna  Maria 
Teresa,  "  whom  all  France  already  looks  upon  as  her  queen."  A 
passage  in  the  Preface  to  the  Italian  Method  should  be  pointed 


1  "  The  General  Grammar  is  the  result  of  conversations  that  M.  Lancelot, 
who  was  entrusted  with  the  teaching  of  languages  in  the  schools  of  Port- 
Royal,  had  with  this  great  man,  in  the  moments  that  the  doctor  was  able  to 
give  up  to  the  desire  that  he  had  to  learn  with  him.  M.  Lancelot  wrote  out 
the  answers  that  M.  Arnauld  gave  to  his  questions  ;  and  thus  was  composed 
the  first  work  that  went  deeply  into  the  art  of  speaking,  and  developed  the 
first  foundations  of  the  Logic."  (Fie  de  messire  Ant.  Arnauld,  Paris  et 
Lausanne,  1783,  t.  i.  p.  218.) 


1 8  Port-Royal  Education. 

out  to  those  engaged  in  teaching,  for  the  proper  management  of 
the  grammatical  studies  both  of  teachers  as  well  as  of  students : 

I" Whosoever  wishes  to  learn  a  language  with  facility  should 
as  soon  as  possible  join  use  and  practice  with  precept. "  For  the 
Italian,  for  instance,  the  declension  of  the  article,  and  the 
auxiliary  and  regular  verbs — some  three  or  four  pages — are  all  that 
it  is  necessary  to  know  in  order  to  begin  construing  an  author. 
"After  that  the  rules  for  the  irregular  verbs  may  be  learnt, 
or  at  least  read  attentively ;  the  rest  of  the  grammar  may  almost 
be  left  to  the  teacher  to  be  applied  in  practice.'' 

With  respect  to  the  grammar  of  the  French  language,  which  is 
obviously  lacking  in  the  collection,  and  which  was  demanded 
abroad,1  particularly  by  Daniel  Elzevier,  the  famous  bookseller  of 
Amsterdam,  Lancelot  replied  to  Dr.  Saint-Amour,  who  had  to 
make  the  proposal,  "that  he  had  several  times  resolved  upon 
undertaking  this  work,  but  that  he  had  always  found  so  many 
difficulties,  and  so  little  likelihood  of  being  able  to  surmount  them, 
that  he  had  been  obliged  to  give  it  up."  Saint- Amour  returned 
to  the  charge  two  or  three  times,  but  always  without  success, 
Lancelot  never  ceasing  to  object  how  much  "  he  had  been 
repelled  every  time  he  had  wished  to  undertake  it." 

)  After  all,  the  Port-Koyalists  rendered  a  greater  service  to  the 
French  language  than  drawing  up  its  grammar:  they  gave  it 
an  important  place  in  classical  studies  by  their  methods  drawn  up 
in  French,  and  no  longer  in  Latin ;  and  by  their  translations  they 
invigorated  it  from  the  sources  of  antiquity,  and  cleared  it  of 
pedantry  and  scholasticism.  They  won  theology  for  it  as 
Descartes  did  philosophy  and  Corneille  the  high  style  of  poetry. 
The  grave  and  learned  works  that  issued  from  Port-Koyal,  more 
attentive  to  matter  than  form,  to  truth  and  virtue  than  to 
beauties  of  style,  drew  admiration  even  from  its  enemies.  Father 

1  Among  ancient  works  that  the  study  of  our  language  produced  we 
may  cite : 

PALSGKAVE,  1'  Esclaircissement  de  la  langue  fran(;oys&  (1530);  Louis 
MtfGRET,  le  TretU  de  la  grammere  fran^oeze  (1550);  RAMUS,  Gramere 
fransoeze  (1562). 

VAUGELAS  in  1647  published  only  detached  remarks  on  the  French 
language,  and  not  a  methodical  treatise.  In  1714  FENELON  expressed  a 
wish  that  the  French  Academy  would  add  a  grammar  to  its  dictionary. 


Introduction.  \  9 

Annat  had  not  more  brilliantly  combated  Pascal  than  the 
learned  Father  Petau  had  attacked  Arnauld,  and  Father  Rapin 
does  not  stint  his  praises  of  the  book  on  Frequent  Communion 
(1G43),  "Nothing  had  been  seen  better  written  in  our  language." 
(Menwires,  t.  i.  p.  22.)  He  does  not  do  less  justice  to  Pascal 
"Men  had,"  he  says,  "so  little  experience  of  a  manner  of  writing 
resembling  that  of  the  Letters  to  a  Provincial,  that  they  could 
form  no  conjectures  sufficiently  clear  to  point  to  anybody  with 
certainty,  because  they  had  never  seen  anything  of  this  character 
in  our  language."  (Memoires,  t.  ii.  p.  380.  j1  Mme.  de  Maintenon, 
whose  profound  antipathy  for  "  those  gentlemen  of  Port-Royal "  is 
well  known,  asserts  that  the  works  "contain  a  venom  so  much 
the  more  dangerous  as  their  style  is  more  pleasing  to  the  natural 
taste,  and  elevates  the  mind.  For  myself,  I  have  never  liked  any 
of  their  books,  although  they  are  very  fine."  (Instruction  a  la 
classe  bleue,  1705.) 

The  influence  of  these  models  for  the  perfecting  of  the  language 
was  deep  and  lasting.  "  By  employing  themselves  for  twenty  years 
after  the  Provincials  in  dexterously  finding  fault  with  the  style 
of  Pascal  the  Jesuits  learnt  to  write  well.  By  ironically  pointing 
out  the  rather  uniform  gravity,2  the  long  periods,  and  at  times 
unusual  expressions  of  the  other  writers  of  Port-Royal,  they  tried 
their  hand  at  a  style  which  was  more  easy  and  flowing  without 
being  less  correct.3  (Yillemain,  Preface  du  Dictionnaire  de 
V  Academie.) 

This  service  was  more  valuable  than  the  composition  of  a 
French  Grammar. 

To  return  to  Lancelot.     When  in  1661  the  Petites  Ecoles  were 

1  There  is  no  one,  even  to  the  venomous  Father  Brisacier,  who  does  not 
admit  the  literary  merit  of  the  Heures  de  Port-Royal ;  he  calls  them  ' '  a  sink 
of  errors,  a  grenade  of  impiety,  a  common  sewer  of  all  the  works  of  Calvin 
collected  in  good  French  under  the  specious  title  of  Office  de  la  Vierge" 
Quoted  by  ARNAULD,  la  Morale  pratique  desjesuites,  t.  viii.  p.  162. 

2  A  curious  note  of  Bossuet  on  his  reading,  dated  1669,  contains  this 
information:    "Some  books  of  MM.  de  Port-Royal,  good  to  read  because 
gravity  and  grandeur  are  found  in  them,  their  prefaces  by  choice  ;  but  their 
style  has  little  variety.     Without  variety  there  is  no  pleasure."  (FLOQUET, 
Etudes  sur  la  vie  de  Bossuet,  t.  i.  p.  378.) 

3  Father  Bouhours,   the   author   of  the  Entretiens  d'Ariste   et  d*  Eugene 
(1671),  must  especially  be  named.     The  second  dialogue  is  entirely  devoted 
to  a  serious  study  of  the  language  of  Port-Royal. 


2O  Port-Royal  Education. 

finally  closed  by  the  king's  command,  he  had  been  for  some  time 
in  charge  of  the  education  of  the  Due  de  Chevreuse,  as  we  see 
by  the  address  of  a  letter  of  Chapelain :  "A  M.  Lancelot, 
precept eur  du  Marquis  de  Luynes,  a  Port-Royal" 

In  1663  he  published  four  treatises  on  poetry — Latin,  French, 
^Italian,  and  Spanish.  He  was  probably  working  on  that  Recueil 
de  poesies  chretiennes  et  diverses,  dedicated  to  Mgr.  le  prince 
de  Conti,  which  appeared  in  1671  in  three  volumes  under 
the  name  of  ...  (the  reader  may  guess  a  hundred  times), 
under  the  name  of  La  Fontaine;  his  friendship  for  Eacine 
and  Boileau  brought  him  into  contact  for  a  short  time  with 
Port-Eoyal.  In  offering  this  collection  to  the  prince,  he  acknow- 
ledges that  he  has  done  little  more  than  lend  his  name. 

"  Those  who  by  their  labour  have  brought  it  to  this  state 
Might  offer  it  to  thee  in  more  brilliant  terms  ; 
But,  fearing  to  emerge  from  that  profound  peace 
Which  they  enjoy  in  secret,  far  from  noise  and  the  world, 
They  engage  me  to  bring  it  to  the  light  for  them." 

Lancelot  had  for  two  years  been  entrusted  with  the  education 
of  the  princes  de  Conti.  Fontaine  has  preserved  the  interesting 
report  that  he  sent  to  M.  de  Saci  on  the  employment  of  the 
day  by  his  pupils,  and  the  distribution  of  their  studies.  He 
preferred  to  resign  his  position  in  1672,  rather  than  consent 
to  take  his  pupils  to  the  theatre.  His  inflexible  strictness  cannot 
escape  the  reproach  of  inconsistency  justly  thrown  on  him  by 
Sainte-Beuve  :  "Of  what  use  is  it,  0  Lancelot,  to  teach  children 
so  well — Greek,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  the  niceties  of  Latin — 
and  to  forbid  them  afterwards  to  go  to  the  theatre  and  hear 
Chimene,  to  permit  neither  the  Jerusalem,  the  Aminta,  Theagene, 
the  Anthology,  nor  all  Catullus?  This  prohibition  and  inter- 
diction extended,  in  fact,  beyond  childhood,  and  in  part  existed 
for  grown-up  men.  Was  it  possible?  Was  it  reasonable?  Of 
what  use  was  it  to  teach  so  much  and  so  well,  if  it  were  not 
to  put  men  in  a  position  to  use  this  knowledge  later?  Why 
should  I  not  enjoy  the  honey  and  the  flowers  of  this  Greek 
whose  Roots  I  have  devoured?  The  child  who  will  write 
Berenice  said  this  to  himself  one  day,  and  he  leaped  over  the 


Introduction.  2 1 


obstacle.     He  flew  over  the  hedge  like  the  bee."  (Port-Royal, 
t.  iii.  p.  531.) 

This  was  the  end  of  the  pedagogic  career  of  Lancelot,  who 
henceforth  devoted  himself  to  the  religious  life  in  the  abbey 
of  Saint-Cyran  under  the  direction  of  M.  de  Barcos.  On  the 
death  of  this  abbe,  in  1678,  great  troubles  arose  in  the  abbey, 
and  Lancelot  was  exiled,  on  the  pretext  of  Jansenism,  to 
Quimperle  in  the  remotest  part  of  Britanny,1  where  he  died 
on  April  15,  1695,  leaving  behind  him  a  venerated  memory. 
The  history  of  French  pedagogy  cannot  leave  in  oblivion  the 
name  of  this  educator  who  devoted  himself  unreservedly  to 
children,  and  who  so  well  understood  that  pedagogy  should  be 
in  the  heart  still  more  than  in  the  head,  and  that  the  master 
should  feel  "  the  love  of  a  father  "  for  his  pupils.  "  A  preceptor 
who  was  not  in  that  frame  of  mind  would  never  do  anything 
....  If,  on  the  contrary,  he  were  so,  this  love  would  make  him 
find  more  ways  of  being  useful  to  his  scholars  than  all  the  advice 
that  might  be  given  him."  (Letter  to  M.  de  Saci  on  the  education 
of  the  princes  de  Conti.) 

shed  more  lustre  than  Lancelot  by  his  talents  as  a  writer 
moralist,  so  much  praised  by  Mme.  de  Sevigne  and  Voltaire. 
In  reality  he  was  much  less  the  man  of  Port-Royal.  He  scarcely 
knew  Saint-Cyran,  and  did  not  altogether  admire  him  when  he 
compared  him  to  a  field,  "  capable  of  producing  much,  but  prolific 
in  briars  and  thorns,"  and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  speak  of  his 
gibberish.  He  acknowledges  that  he  kept  himself  a  little  aloof. 
"  I  was  for  five  or  six  years  in  a  place  where  they  usually  opposed 
to  de  Saci,  M.  Singlin,  M.  N.  and  M.  1ST.  on  one  side  and  myself 
on  the  other."  (Essais,  t.  vii.  p.  180).  On  the  death  of  de  Saci 
he  did  not  approve  of  the  marks  of  veneration  and  tenderness 
lavished  by  the  nuns  on  their  beloved  confessor ;  and  he  wrote 
to  Mile.  Aubry,  begging  her  not  to  mention  it,  that  for  thirty 

1  Nothing  more  is  heard  of  him  except  one  curious  circumstance  related 
by  Arnauld  to  M.  du  Vaucel  and  Mme.  de  Fontpertuis,  March  16 
and  17,  1689.  James  II.,  King  of  England,  who  had  been  dethroned, 
arrived  at  Kimperlay  (sic}.  '  *  A  great  supper  was  awaiting  him  in  the 
abbey  where  brother  Claude  Lancelot  is  ....  M.  d'Avaux  seated  him 
at  table  by  his  side  .  .  .  Who  would  have  thought  that  a  monk  exiled  to 
Britanny  would  have  had  the  honour  of  supping  with  a  king  ? " 


22  Port- Royal  Education. 


years  he  had  suffered  from  this  unreasonable  assiduity  of    the 
devotees. 

M.  de  Beaubrun,  in  the  interesting  portrait  that  he  has  drawn 
of  Nicole,  goes  so  far  as  to  say  :  "  He  was  a  jansenist,  perhaps, 
only  through  fear  of  displeasing  M.  Arnauld,  since  after  1689 
he  wrote  to  Father  Quesnel  that  for  more  than  thirty  years  he 
had  had  the  thoughts  that  he  had  expressed  in  his  treatise  on 
la  Grace  general^  that  is  to  say  that  he  was  writing  in  favour  of 
Jansenism,  while  he  had  in  his  mind  a  system  diametrically 
opposed  to  it."  (Vie  manuscrite,  a  passage  quoted  by  Sainte- 
Beuve,  t.  iv.  p.  516.) 

^Nicole,  besides,  was  less  exclusively  attached  to  the  Petiles 
Ecoles.  He  divided  his  time  between  the  care  of  his  pupils,  his 
theological  studies,  and  his  preparation  for  the  licentiate's  degree, 
which  he  did  not  renounce  until  1649.  A  manuscript  biographical 
notice  from  Holland  thus  describes  the  more  restricted  part  that 
he  took  :  "  M.  Nicole  only  directed  the  studies  of  the  young  people 
at  Port-Royal.  The  young  gentlemen  were  themselves  much  in- 
clined to  study ;  they  only  needed  to  have  the  best  passages  of  the 
Greek  or  Latin  authors  pointed  out  to  them.  M.  Nicole  was  there 
to  inspire  them  with  the  taste  for  them.  M.  Nicole  was  to  them 
rather  an  adviser  than  a  master,  as  this  name  is  understood  now." 
(Quoted  by  Sainte-Beuve,  t.  iv.  p.  599.) 

His  talent  as  a  teacher  was  very  remarkable.  Father  Rapin 
(Mem.  t.  ii.  p.  254)  relates  that  Singlin  heard  him  discourse  on  an 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  got  him  to  talk  on  various  subjects,  and 
brought  him  under  the  notice  of  Arnauld,  who  hastened  to 
associate  him  with  himself,  and  being  unable  to  do  without 
him,  soon  carried  him  off  to  the  schools.  He  was  well  qualified 
for  teaching  belles-lettres  and  philosophy. 

"M.  Nicole,"  says  Besogne  (t.  v.  p.  225),  "studied  under  his 
father  all  the  authors  of  profane  antiquity,  both  Greek  and 
Latin.1  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  had  finished  the  usual  course 
of  the  humanities,  he  had  so  much  aptitude  and  penetration  of 
mind  joined  to  a  most  excellent  memory.  It  was  sufficient  for 


1  Nicole,  Essais  de  morale,  t.  viii.  p.  193,  admits  that  he  had  not  read 
Demosthenes 


Introduction.  23 

Jrim  to  read  a  book  once  in  order  to  retain  its  substance,  and  at  an 
advanced  age  he  told  his  friends  that  he  had  forgotten  nothing 
that  he  had  read  in  his  youth.  He  knew  his  Virgil  and  Horace 
perfectly.  A  short  time  before  his  death  he  gravely  recited  a 
number  of  verses  of  the  ^Eneid.  The  author  who  pleased  him 
most,  and  whom  he  willingly  re-read  for  his  good  latinity,  was 
Terence.  He  was  accustomed  to  say  that  the  best  passages  of 
these  authors  were  like  fine  models  that  it  was  necessary  to  have 
in  the  mind  in  order  to  write  fine  works;  that  a  man  who  was 
not  provided  with  these  fine  models,  and  who  undertook  to 
compose,  might  indeed  write  fine  things,  but  it  was  as  if  he 
printed  in  Gothic  characters;  while  he  who  had  made  these 
fine  passages  his  own  was  in  a  position  to  print  in  fine  Roman 
characters,  which  it  was  a  pleasure  to  read." 

This  extensive  and  varied  knowledge,  this  wide  and  curious 
reading,  which  give  a  peculiar  character  to  Nicole  among  the 
solitaries  of  Port-Royal,  lacks,  however,  the  keen  feeling  for 
beauty.  A  passage  in  one  of  his  letters  is  truly  singular  for 
a  professor  of  the  humanities ;  he  does  not  conceal  his  contempt 
for  the  impassioned  admirers  of  the  ancients :  "  For  myself,"  he 
adds,  "  /  take  pleasure  in  discovering  the  falsehoods  and  great 
delusions  in  these  same  books.  I  find  a  quantity  of  them.7' 
This  is  a  very  unfortunate  turn  of  mind,  and  would  be  calcu- 
lated to  vitiate  and  sterilize  all  literary  teaching.  "  The  pleasure 
of  criticism,"  says  La  Bruyere,  "takes  from  us  the  faculty  of 
being  deeply  touched  by  very  fine  things." 

Nicole  has  an  unfortunate  kind  of  prejudice  against  the  whole 
of  ancient  literature. 

Recalling  to  mind  that  Saint-Cyran  never  read  the  books  ofi 
heretics  "  without  having  performed  the  exorcisms  of  the  church,  I 
because  he  said  that  they  were  written  by  the  spirit  of  the  devil, 
and  that  there  was  in  these  books  an  impression  of  error,"  he 
adds,  "  But  do  not  all  the  books  of  the  pagans  come  from  the 
same    source?"    (t.  xii.  p.   176.) 1      Happily  he  corrected   this 

1  It  is  unpleasant  to  see  Port-Royal,  which  stigmatized  the  ineptitude 
of  Father  Garasse,  in  agreement  with  him  on  this  point,  in  better  terms, 
however :  "  It  is  true  that  the  greatest  captains  in  the  world,  who  in  old 
times  filled  the  earth  with  the  signs  of  their  triumphs,  are  now  like  hodmen 


24  Port-Royal  Education. 

sally  himself,  and  felt  the  moral  value  of  ancient  literature. 
(See  p.  180.) 

What  shall  we  say  of  several  of  his  criticisms  on  French 
literature1?  Did  he  not  arouse  the  anger  and  ingratitude  of 
Eacine  by  calling  the  dramatic  poets  public  poison  ersl  The  great 
Corneille,  whose  theatre  breathes  in  the  highest  degree  heroism 
and  the  sentiment  of  duty,  finds  no  favour  in  his  prejudiced  eyes, 
and  he  pronounces,  even  in  the  case  of  the  Cid  and  Horace,  the 
words  corruption,  barbarism,  criminal  aims. 

"  One  cannot  better  prove  the  danger  there  is  in  all  comedies 
than  by  showing  that  those  even  of  this  author  are  contrary  to 
the  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  and  that  they  corrupt  the  mind  and  heart 
by  the  pagan  and  profane  sentiments  that  they  inspire."  (Les 
Visionnaires,  Avertissement,  p.  22.)  Bossuet,  unfortunately,  has 
not  been  more  just  towards  Corneille. 

The  genius  of  Pascal  also  has  partly  escaped  Nicole.  He 
proclaims  him,  indeed,  "one  of  the  great  minds  of  this  age" 
(Essais,  t.  iii.  p.  3);  he  quotes  the  Pensees  as  one  of  the  most 
useful  works  to  put  into  the  hands  of  princes  (see  p.  179);  but 
he  goes  so  far  as  to  call  him  "  a  gatherer  of  shells,"  and  nearly 
made  the  abbe  de  Saint-Pierre,  to  whom  he  said  this  enormity, 
doubt  the  discernment  of  the  moralist.  (Ouvrages  de  morale  et  de 
politique,  t.  xii.  p.  86.) 

With  what  strange  freedom,  in  a  letter  to  the  Marquis  de 
Sevigne,  he  reproaches  Mme.  de  la  Fayette  with  wishing  to 
impose  admiration  of  these  Pensees  without  "  telling  us  more 
particularly  what  we  ought  to  admire  in  them,"  and  to  reduce 
us  "to  pretend  to  think  admirable  what  we  do  not  understand ! " 

We  cannot  but  praise  the  wisdom  and  prudence  of  the  editors, 
while  regretting  it,  that  in  publishing  the  Pensees  they  thought 
of  excising  some  passages  in  which  the  royal  majesty  was  treated 
with  small  respect,  some  assertions  which  furnished  matter  for 
new  discussions,  and  some  attacks  on  the  "  worthy  Fathers." 


and  stable  -  boys  in  hell  ;  it  is  true  that  the  devil  has  taken  the  greatest 
philosophers  of  Greece,  the  wisest  councillors  of  the  Areopagus,  the  most 
famous  orators  of  Rome,  the  haughtiest  princes  of  heathendom,  the  most 
learned  physicians  of  the  universe ;  it  is  true  that  they  are  all  in  the  pay 
of  Lucifer."  (P.  GARASSE,  Doctrine  curieuse,  p.  867.) 


Introduction.  25 


We  can  understand,  strictly,  that  Arnauld  should  write  to 
M,  Perrier,  who  defended  the  work  of  Pascal :  "  A  man  cannot 
be  too  precise  when  he  has  to  do  with  such  ill-natured  enemies 
as  yours.  It  is  much  more  to  the  point  to  avoid  carping  criticisms 
by  some  slight  change,  which  only  softens  an  expression,  than 
to  be  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  making  apologies.  .  .  ." 
(20  Nov.,  1660.) 

But  that  anyone  should  have  the  idea  of  correcting  Pascal's 
style,  of  remodelling  his  phrases,  of  changing  such  and  such  a 
familiar  and  original  expression,  such  and  such  a  lively  and 
dramatic  turn,  shows  an  aberration  of  mind,  an  absence  of 
criticism,  and  a  want  of  taste  that  we  cannot  describe;  and  wo 
have  some  trouble  to  understand  that  this  was,  in  great  part, 
the  work  of  him  whom  Bayle  calls  the  finest  pen  of  Port-Eoyal, 
and  whom  the  papal  nuncio  named  the  golden  pen.1 

This  imperfection  of  his  literary  sense,  taste,  and  imagination 
is  equally  betrayed  in  the  only  book  relating  to  the  teaching  of 
belles-lettres  on  which  Nicole  worked,  Epigrammatum  delectus 
(A  Selection  of  Epigrams,  1659).  A  preface  and  a  dissertation, 
both  in  Latin,  indicate  the  aim  and  plan  of  the  work — to  culti- 
vate the  mind,  and  to  protect  the  morals.  The  worthy  Nicole 
"  shuddered  with  horror  at  the  sight  of  the  obscenities  of  Martial 
and  Catullus,  whose  works  eternal  oblivion  or  the  flames  ought 
to  have  destroyed."  But  as  "  remedies  are  drawn  from  the  viper 
and  flowers  are  found  among  poisons,"  he  sets  to  work  to  make 
a  selection  of  the  most  elegant  pieces.  He  would  perhaps  have 
acted  as  wisely  in  not  including  the  construing  of  these  authors 
in  a  programme  of  classical  studies.  This  kind  of  work  is  of  a 
very  limited  and  secondary  character. 

The  dissertation  on  true  and  false  beauty,  on  the  nature  and 
the  different  kinds  of  epigrams,  notwithstanding  the  praises  of 
Chapelain2,  ill-satisfies  the  reader.  Father  Vavasseur,  "  the  best 
humanist  of  his  time,"  in  the  opinion  of  the  abbe  d'Olivet,  the 


1  See  in  Havet's  edition,  especially  pp.  13  and  267,  two  specimens  of  this 
literary  profanation. 

2  9  September,  1659,  letter  to  d'Andilly :    "  I  have  seen  nothing  better 
written  in  the  didactic  style,  nothing  more  judicious,  more  chaste,  more 
clearly  set  forth  in  the  nature  of  the  epigram,  in  fine,  more  instructive. " 


26  Port-Royal  Education. 

historian  of  the  French  Academy,  has  roughly  handled  him,  and 
not  without  reason.  "Was  it  not  sufficient  for  the  theory  of  this 
kind  of  poetry  which  only  admits  of  a  few  verses  to  demand 
naturalness  and  simplicity,  a  witty  and  pointed  turn,  grace  and 
delicacy?  Instead  of  that,  Nicole  discourses  gravely  on  the 
nature  and  source  of  the  beautiful ;  he  lays  down  this  principle, 
sufficiently  vague,  however,  that  it  is  especially  in  conformity 
with  the  nature  of  things  and  with  our  nature;  he  reduces  its 
conditions  to  three — the  agreeableness  of  the  tone,  the  propriety 
of  the  words,  and  the  truth  and  naturalness  of  the  thoughts ; 
he  thinks  that  he  has  thoroughly  examined  his  subject,  although 
he  admits  himself  that  all  this  has  little  to  do  with  the  epigram, 
in  proclaiming  the  weakness  of  human  nature  as  the  reason  of 
metaphors.  It  is  this  that  appears  so  chaste  to  Chapelain. 
Nicole  then  explains  how,  in  consequence  of  these  premisses, 
he  has  been  obliged  to  reject  from  his  collection  false,  mytho- 
logical, equivocal,  hyperbolical,  doubtful,  vulgar,  spiteful,  verbose, 
or  common  epigrams.  After  which,  but  a  little  late,  he  takes  in 
hand  the  definition  and  form  of  the  epigram,  and  admits  two 
kinds — the  sublime,  grand,  and  magnificent  kind,  and  another 
a  little  lower  in  style  but  more  useful  in  application. 

The  best  thing  in  this  ill-balanced  dissertation  is  the  ideas 
rather  carelessly  thrown  out  at  the  end,  where  Nicole,  without 
circumlocution,  praises,  especially  in  the  epigram,  the  ingenious 
point  that  penetrates  the  mind  deeply,  or  its  simplicity  and  play- 
fulness, and  the  art  of  treating  the  subject  without  excess  or 
defect,  without  obscurity  or  complication,  by  cleverly  leading  up 
to  the  effect ;  and  he  quotes  Martial,  who  is  a  master  of  this  art. 
Martial  and  Port-Royal !  Does  not  the  approximation  of  these 
two  names  excite  the  most  legitimate  astonishment  1  All  Nicole's 
dissertation,  however,  falls  to  pieces  at  this  simple  remark  of 
Voltaire :  "  The  epigram  should  not  be  placed  in  a  higher  rank 
than  the  song  ...  I  should  advise  no  one  to  apply  himself  to  a 
style  that  may  bring  much  disappointment  and  little  glory." 
((Euvres,  t.  xxxix.  p.  212.) 

Nicole  took  a  large  share  in  the  composition  of  the  Logic, 
or  the  Art  of  Thinking,  but  the  firmer  hand  and  more  liberal 
mind  of  Arnauld  are  perceived  in  this  work.  Arnauld,  alone 


Introduction.  27 


at  Port-Royal,  is  sincerely  Cartesian ;  he  declared  himself  a 
partisan  of  the  new  philosophy  on  the  appearance  of  the 
Discours  de  la  Methods  in  1637.  In  his  lectures  at  the  college 
of  Le  Mans1  he  dictated  the  new  principles  to  his  pupils.  When 
he  sent  to  Father  Mersenne  his  objections  to  the  Meditations  of 
Descartes,  which  appeared  in  1641,  he  wrote  these  explicit  words : 
"  You  have  known  for  a  long  time  in  what  esteem  I  hold  the 
person  of  M.  Descartes  and  the  value  I  set  upon  his  mind  and 
teaching." 

In  June,  1648,  he  writes  to  Descartes  himself  that  he  has 
"read  with  admiration  and  approved  almost  entirely  of  all  that 
he  has  written  touching  the  first  philosophy  "  (Le.  Metaphysics). 
He  held  these  opinions  all  his  life. 

It  was  in  vain  that  Leibnitz,  in  that  interesting  correspondence 
from  1686  to  1690,  which  has  been  published  in  our  time,  showed 
him  how  much  was  lacking  in  the  philosophy  of  Descartes,  that 
he  was  not  satisfied  with  the  definition  of  the  body  by  extension 
nor  with  that  of  the  soul  by  thinking,  nor2  of  the  conditions 
of  the  perfection  of  God  and  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
nor  of  the  automatism  of  animals.  Arnauld  remains  convinced 
of  the  soundness  of  the  doctrine  of  Descartes,  and  does  not  cease 
taking  up  its  defence.  In  1692  he  repels  the  attacks  of  Huet, 
Bishop  of  Avranches,  as  in  1680  he  had  done  those  of  Lemoine, 
Dean  of  the  Chapter  at  Vitre.  He  appeals  to  the  principles  of 
Descartes  against  the  Calvinists  in  the  Perpetuite  de  la  foi,  so  far 
as  to  make  Jurieu  say  that  the  theologians  of  Port-Royal  were 
more  attached  to  Cartesianism  than  to  Christianity.  (Politique  du 
clerge  de  France,  p.  107.) 

Elsewhere  he  sadly  wonders  that  the  Inquisition  has  not  put 
the  works  of  Gassendi,  who  had  employed  his  whole  mind  to 
ruin  spiritual  philosophy  in  favour  of  the  doctrines  of  Epicurus, 
in  the  Index,  and  that  it  had,  in  fact,  placed  the  Meditations  of 
Descartes  in  it. 

1  At  Paris,  in  the  rue  de  Reims,  then  in  1682  rue  d'Enfer ;  in  1761  it  was 
united  with  the  College  Louis  le  Grand. 

2  Bossuet  supports  him  :  "  Every  time  that  M.  de  Leibnitz,"  he  replies  to 
him,  "  undertakes  to  prove  that  the  essence  of  the  body  is  not  in  its  actual 
extent  any  more  than  that  of  the  soul  in  actual  thought,  I  declare  myself 
on  his  side.  (CEuvres,  t.  x.  p.  97.) 


Port- Royal  Education. 


Nicole  is  much  less  firm  in  his  attachment  to  Cartesianism. 
With  his  turn  of  mind,  readily  sceptical  in  everything  that 
does  not  relate  to  faith,  he  takes  pleasure  in  disparaging  philo- 
sophy. "If  I  had  to  live  over  again  I  think  that  I  would  so 
act  as  not  to  be  put  in  the  number  of  the  Cartesians  any 
more  than  in  that  of  others.  ...  In  truth,  the  Cartesians  are 
worth  little  more  than  the  rest,  and  are  often  prouder  and  more 
self-sufficient;  and  Descartes  himself  was  not  a  man  who  might 
be  called  a  pious  person."  (t.  viii.  p.  153-156.) 

We  shall  be  less  astonished  at  seeing  a  professor  of  philosophy 
treat  with  so  little  respect  him  whom  history  calls  the  father 
of  modern  philosophy  when  we  read  the  judgment  that  he 
pronounced  on  the  real  founder  of  ancient  philosophy, 

"  Socrates  ....  is  a  man  full  of  small  ideas  and  petty 
reasoning,  who  looks  only  on  the  present  life,  a  man  who  finds 
pleasure  in  discoursing  on  truths  for  the  most  part  useless, 
and  which  only  tend  to  enlighten  the  mind  with  respect  to  a 
few  human  objects/'  (t.  xi.  p.  119.) 

It  would  be  difficult  to  have  a  more  narrow  and  unjust 
prejudice  and  to  decry  thus  gratuitously  one  of  the  most  real 
glories  of  humanity ;  the  immortal  thinker  who  recalled  men 
to  the  study  of  themselves,  who  preached  to  them  temperance 
and  justice  and  the  dignity  of  labour,  who  courageously  opposed 
the  sophists,  the  ethics  of  pleasure  and  passion,  the  politics  of 
force,  and  who  crowned  this  disinterested  and  useful  life  by 
a  heroic  death. 

Although,  then,  Nicole  passes  for  the  author  of  the  two 
discourses  prefixed  to  the  Logic^  the  merit  of  the  firm  and 
courageous  attitude  of  the  authors  towards  Aristotle  and 
scholasticism  must  especially  be  attributed  to  the  influence  of 
Arnauld. 

1  Arnauld  only  speaks  of  the  first  of  these  discourses  in  this  note  to 
Mme.  de  Sable  :  "All  that  I  can  do  to  reconcile  myself  with  you  is  to  send 
you  something  that  will  amuse  you  for  half  an  hour,  and  in  which  I  think 
you  will  see  expressed  a  part  of  your  ideas  respecting  the  folly  of  mankind. 
It  is  a  discourse  that  we  have  been  thinking  of  prefixing  to  our  Logic.  You 
will  oblige  us  by  sending  us  your  opinion  of  it  when  you  have  seen  it,  for  it 
is  only  persons  like  yourself  that  we  would  have  for  judges  of  it."  (19  April, 
1660.)  It  is  in  the  second,  which  answers  the  objections,  that  the  hand  of 
Arnauld  is  visible. 


8  13  Y  1 

Introduction.  29 




In  the  struggle  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy  to  free  modern 
thought  from  the  heavy  yoke  of  Aristotle  and  scholasticism, 
we  know  with  what  prudence1  Descartes  had  in  1637  undertaken 
the  destruction  of  the  ancient  philosophy  by  proclaiming  the 
right  of  free  examination,  provisional  doubt,  and  the  criterion 
of  evidence. 

"  My  intention  is  not  to  teach  here  the  method  that  each  man 
must  follow  to  properly  guide  his  reason,  but  only  to  show  how 
I  have  tried  to  guide  my  own.''  (Discours  de  la  Methods,  i.) 
" .  .  .  .  Setting  forth  this  writing  only  as  a  history,  or,  if  you 
like  it  better,  as  a  fable.  .  .  .  My  design  has  never  extended 
further  than  trying  to  form  anew  my  own  proper  thoughts,  and 
to  build  on  a  foundation  which  is  entirely  my  own."  (ii.) 

He  writes  to  Father  Mersenne  in  1641:  "I  will  tell  you, 
between  ourselves,  that  these  six  meditations  contain  all  the 
foundations  of  my  physics ;  but  do  not  say  so,  if  you  please, 
for  those  who  favour  Aristotle  will  perhaps  make  more  difficulty 
in  approving  of  them;  and  I  hope  that  those  who  read  them 
will  insensibly  get  accustomed  to  my  principles,  and  will  recognize 
their  truth  before  perceiving  that  they  destroy  Aristotle's.'' 

We  shall  understand  this  prudence  if  we  remember  that 
Giordano  Bruno,  who,  among  other  misdeeds,  had  opposed  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  at  Paris,  was  burnt  at  Eome  in  1600; 
that  Vanini,  in  1619,  at  Toulouse  was  condemned  for  his  philo- 
sophical opinions  to  have  his  tongue  cut  out  and  afterwards  to 
be  hanged  and  burnt ;  that  Galileo,  who  had  been  severely 
admonished  in  1616  by  the  congregation  of  the  Index,  had  to 
go  to  Eome  in  1633  to  solemnly  abjure  his  theory  of  the  move- 
ment of  the  earthv 

The  Logic  of  Port-Eoyal,  published  in  1662,  lays  down  clearly 
and  boldly  the  right  of  human  reason  before  the  jurisdiction 
of  authority :  "  It  is  a  very  great  restraint  for  a  man  to  think 
himself  obliged  to  approve  of  Aristotle  in  everything,  and  to  take 
him  as  the  guide  to  the  truth  of  philosophical  opinions.  .  .  .  The 

1  Bossuet  thinks  it  excessive  :  "  M.  Descartes  has  always  feared  to  be 
remarked  by  the  Church,  and  we  see  him  take  precautions  against  that,  some 
of  which  run  to  excess."  (Lettre  a  M.  Postel,  docteur  de  Sorbonne,  21  mai, 
1701.) 


30  Port- Royal  Education. 

world  cannot  remain  long  under  this  constraint,  and  insensibly 
regains  possession  of  natural  and  reasonable  liberty,  which  consists 
in  approving  what  it  judges  to  be  true  and  rejecting  what  it 
judges  to  be  false." 

To  appreciate  at  its  real  worth  the  boldness  of  these  resolute 
declarations,  we  must  remember  that  in  1670,  the  general  of  the 
Jesuits  wrote  to  all  the  houses  of  the  society  to  oppose  Descartes' 
philosophy,  and  that  shortly  afterwards  the  University  presented 
a  petition  to  the  Parliament  to  forbid  its  teaching.  The  Arret 
Burlesque,  composed  by  Boileau  in  1675,  did  ample  justice  to  it. 

"  The  Court  having  examined  the  petition  ....  setting  forth 
that  for  several  years  an  unknown  person,  named  Reason,  had 
attempted  to  enter  by  force  the  schools  of  the  said  University 
....  where  Aristotle  had  always  been  recognized  as  judge,  with- 
out appeal,  and  not  accountable  for  his  opinions  ,  .  . ;  having 
examined  the  treatises,  entitled  Physics  of  Rohault,  Logic  of  Port- 
Royal  .  .  . 

"The  Court  ....  has  maintained  and  kept,  maintains  and 
keeps,  the  said  Aristotle  in  full  and  peaceable  possession  of  the 
said  schools.  .  .  .  And,  in  order  that  in  the  future  he  be  not 
molested,  has  banished  in  perpetuity  Eeason  from  the  schools  of 
the  said  University;  forbids  him  to  enter  them  and  disturb  or 
molest  the  said  Aristotle  in  the  possession  and  use  of  the  same,  on 
pain  of  being  declared  a  jansenist  and  friend  of  innovations.  ..." 

The  greatest  merit  of  the  Port-Royal  Logic  is  to  have  intro- 
duced Cartesiansm  into  teaching.  It  proclaims  aloud  that  it  has 
borrowed  some  reflections  "from  the  books  of  a  celebrated 
philosopher  of  this  age,  who  has  as  much  clearness  of  mind  as 
there  is  confusion  in  the  others."  It  sets  forth,  like  Descartes,  in 
the  name  of  the  famous  axiom,  "  I  think,  therefore  I  exist,"  the 
evidence  of  conscience  as  the  criterion  of  truth,  and  the  four  rules 
of  his  Method  as  the  best  guarantee  against  error,  and  for 
discovering  the  truth  in  human  sciences. 

It  was  indeed  the  spirit  of  Descartes  that  suggested  to  the 
authors  their  small  confidence  in  the  rules  of  logic,  and  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  syllogism,  their  title  of  "Art  of  thinking  "  instead  of 
"  Art  of  reasoning,"  their  carefulness  in  forming  the  judgment  by 
replacing  the  abstract  and  conventional  examples  by  instructive 


Introduction.  3 1 


examples  taken  from  the  different  branches  of  knowledge,  to  give 
to  logic  at  once  more  interest  and  especially  more  practical  utility, 
and  to  bring  it  out  of  the  school  and  make  it  useful  for  the  study 
of  the  sciences  as  well  as  for  the  conduct  of  life. 

These  solid  merits  have  made  this  work  a  classic.  Excepting 
certain  defects  of  plan  and  proportion,  easily  explicable  by  the 
haste  in  which  the  work  was  composed,  by  the  collaboration  of  two 
authors,  and  by  the  successive  additions  that  they  made  to  it,  there 
is  really  but  one  fault,  but  it  is  a  grave  one,  to  be  found  with 
the  Logic,  namely,  that  it  is  so  full  of  the  spirit  of  Descartes  that 
it  escapes  the  influence,  not  yet  very  marked  it  is  true,  of  Bacon.1 
A  theologian  and  geometrician,  Arnauld  has  explained  the  method 
of  deduction,  and  completely  neglected  the  method  of  induction, 
observation,  and  experiment  which  are  suitable  to  the  physical  and 
natural  sciences.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  illustrious  Chancellor  of 
England,  in  the  Novum  Organum,  in  1620,  with  the  enthusiasm 
of  an  apostle,  had  invited  men  to  lay  aside  the  sterile  dogmatism 
and  the  compilations  of  pretended  scholars,  and  to  interpret  the 
great  book  of  nature  by  a  patient  observation  of  facts;2  "not  to 
cling,  so  to  say,  to  empty  abstractions  and  pursue  unrealities  like 
the  common  logic,  but  to  anatomize  nature,  to  discover  the  real 
properties  of  bodies,  and  their  well-determined  actions  and  laws  in 
matter"  (Nov.  Org.  ii.  §52.);  to  give  up  the  syllogism  as  "an 
instrument  too  weak  and  coarse  to  penetrate  into  the  depths  of 
nature."  (Nov.  Org.  i.  §  13.) 

A  very  remarkable  chapter,  in  which  we  recognize  the  delicate 
hand  of  Nicole,  his  talent  for  analysis  and  his  gentle  raillery, 
namely,  that  on  fallacies  in  life,  permits  us  to  study  the  moralist 
under  his  true  aspect. 

We  know  what  an  impassioned  cult  Mine,  de  Sevigne  did  not 
cease  to  profess  for  the  moral  philosophy  of  Nicole,  notwithstanding 

1  Nevertheless  we  find  the  Advocate-General  Bignon,  one  of  the  great 
friends  of  Port-Royal,  speaking  at  length  of  Bacon  to  a  traveller  who  came 
from  England.  (Vie  par  1'abbe  Ferau,  vol.  ii.  p.  92.)    Descartes,  in  his  Letters 
(t.  ii.  pp.  324,  330,  494),  approves  of  Bacon's  method,  and  thinks  it  proper 
for  those  who  wish  to  work  at  the  advancement  of  the  sciences.     He  always 
calls  him  Verulamius,  from  the  barony  of  Verulam  that  he  possessed. 

2  "  What  it  is  necessary,  so  to  say,  to  attach  to  the  understanding  is  not 
wings,  but  on  the  contrary  lead,  a  weight  which  may  restrain  its  flight,"  he 
says  in  his  figurative  language.  (Nov.  Org.  i.  §  104.) 


32  Port- Royal  Education. 

the  bitter  criticisms  of  her  son,1  who  openly  declared  the  Trait e  de 
la  connaissance  de  soi  meme  "distilled,  sophisticated  gibberish  in 
several  passages,  and,  above  all,  wearisome  almost  from  one  end  to 
the  other."  She  proclaimed  it  "admirable,  delightful";  she  is 
"charmed"  with  it;  it  is  a  pleasure  which  "carries  her  away." 
She  felt  a  lively  pleasure  in  seeing  "the  human  heart  so  well 
anatomized,  and  its  depths  searched  with  a  lantern."  "It  is 
a  treasure  to  have  such  a  good  mirror  of  the  weaknesses  of  our 
heart."  (vol.  i.  71.)  This  patient,  ingenious,  sometimes  playful 
and  gently  satirical  analysis  of  weaknesses,  eccentricities,  pre- 
judices, and  illusions  gave  satisfaction  to  her  fine  and  delicate 
mind,  as  the  purity  and  severity  of  the  morality  did  to  the 
nobility  of  her  sentiments  and  the  respectability  of  her  life. 

The  Essais  de  morale  comprise  six  volumes,  to  which  may  be 
added  two  other  volumes  of  Letters,  which  are  not  the  least 
interesting  part  of  the  works  of  Nicole.  No  comprehensive  plan 
binds  these  various  Essais  together,  because  they  were  composed 
from  day  to  day  as  opportunity  offered.  The  first  are  well 
developed  and  very  methodical  treatises,  in  which  the  author  feels 
himself  at  his  best,  because  he  finds  something  "to  prove  and 
to  settle."  Then  they  are  only  very  short  articles,  and  at  last 
simple  detached  thoughts. 

Nicole  rarely  raises  his  voice  to  the  pitch  of  the  keen  eloquence 
of  Pascal ;  he  lacks  authority  and  real  passion  in  order  to  move 
us  profoundly ;  he  leaves  us  cold,  and  makes  us  smile  rather  than 
tremble  when,  for  instance,  he  represents  the  whole  world  under 
the  power  of  the  demon,  as  "  a  place  of  execution  .  .  .  full  of  all 
instruments  of  men's  cruelty,  and  filled  on  the  one  side  with 
executioners,  and  on  the  other  with  an  infinite  number  of  criminals 
abandoned  to  their  rage.  .  .  .  We  pass  our  days  in  the  midst  of 
this  spiritual  carnage,  and  we  may  say  that  we  swim  in  the  blood  of 

1  Ch.  de  Sevigne  thus  terminates  a  letter  to  his  mother  :  "  And  I  tell  you 
that  the  first  volume  of  the  Essais  de  morale  would  appear  to  you  just  as  it 
does  to  me,  if  La  Marans  and  the  abbe  Tetu  had  not  accustomed  you  to  fine 
and  elaborate  things.  This  is  not  the  first  time  that  gibberish  appears  to 
you  clear  and  easy  ;  of  all  that  has  been  said  of  man  and  the  heart  of  man, 
I  have  seen  nothing  less  agreeable  ;  those  portraits  in  which  everyone 
recognizes  himself  are  not  there.  Pascal,  the  Port-Royal  Logic,  Plutarch  and 
Montaigne  speak  very  differently  ;  this  man  speaks  because  he  wishes  to 
speak,  and  often  he  has  not  much  to  say."  (2  February,  1676.) 


In  t  reduction.  3  3 


sinners,  that  we  are  all  covered  with  it,  and  that  this  world  which 
bears  us  is  a  river  of  blood."  (De  la  crainte  de  Dieu.)  He  does 
not  succeed  better  in  his  picture  of  the  conscience  of  the  sinner  at 
the  moment  that  he  appears  before  his  judge ;  he  compares  it  to 
"a  vast  but  dark  chamber,  that  a  man  works  all  his  life  to  fill 
with  adders  and  serpents.  .  .  .  When  he  is  thinking  least  of  it, 
the  windows  of  this  chamber  opening  all  of  a  sudden  and  letting 
in  the  broad  daylight,  all  the  serpents  awake  suddenly,  and  spring- 
ing upon  the  wretch,  they  tear  him  to  pieces  with  their  bites," 
&c  (Du  jugement.)  To  represent  the  primitive  corruption  of 
Tuoii,  "let  us  imagine,"  says  he,  "a  universal  plague,  or,  rather, 
an  accumulation  of  plagues,  pests,  and  malignant  carbuncles  with 
which  the  body  of  a  man  may  be  covered,  &c. ;  this  is  an  image 
of  the  state  in  which  we  are  born."  (De  la  connaissance  de  soi- 
meme.)  There  is  always  the  same  weakness  and  impotence  with 
the  same  exaggeration. 

Sometimes  Nicole  gives  a  smart  and  clever  touch,  that  sets  off 
the  expression  and  renders  the  truth  pleasing.  Here  are  two 
passages  of  a  letter  which  deserve  to  be  extracted  : — 

"The  young  children  of  our  villages  have  a  very  amusing 
custom  when  they  go  in  procession  after  Easter.  He  who  carries 
the  bell  separates  himself  with  a  few  companions  a  quarter  of  a 
league  from  the  main  body  of  the  procession,  and  if  he  meet 
another  bell  they  come  to  action ;  they  knock  their  bells  against 
each  other,  and  do  not  finish  the  contest  until  one  of  the  bells 
is  broken.  After  which  there  is  nothing  more  to  be  said,  for  no 
one  can  doubt  on  which  side  victory  is.  It  is  much  to  be  wished 
that  it  were  the  same  in  the  conflict  of  caprices,  and  that  the  one 
that  is  broken  should  be  so  plainly  and  incontestably  broken  that 
there  could  be  no  doubt  about  it,"  &c.  (Essais,  t.  vii.  p.  31.) 

And  a  few  pages  further  on :  "I  should  even  dare  to  tell  you 
(provided  that  you  do  not  take  my  comparison  too  literally,  and 
that  you  do  not  take  it  into  your  head  to  conclude  that  I  accuse 
you  of  drunkenness)  that  I  should  wish  that  one  should  do  with 
regard  to  imputations  that  -which  they  say  that  the  Breton  girls 
do  with  regard  to  the  fault  which  prevails  in  that  country,  which 
is  that  of  getting  intoxicated ;  for,  as  they  suppose  that  there  is 
no  man  who  is  exempt  from  it,  they  will  not  marry  one,  it  is  said, 

D 


34  Port-Royal  Education. 

without  having  seen  him  drunk,  in  order  to  know  by  that  whethe 
he  is  merry  or  quarrelsome  in  his  cups."  (Essais,  t.  vii.  p.  35.) 

We    have   said   that   the  jansenists   use   long   and   cumbrou 

,  sentences.     This  quotation  is  a  sufficiently  demonstrative  proof  o 

/  it.     The  matter  is  here  spoilt,  as  if  designedly,  by  the  form.     Bu 

/  at  Port-Koyal  it  was  thought  derogatory  to  Christian  humility  t< 

'   pay  attention  to  style,  and  Nicole  declares  to  Mme.  de  la  Fayett< 

;    that  he  does  not  think  it  a  great  evil  to  be  a  bad  author,  (t.  viii 

p.  261.) 

The  neglect  that  he  suffered  because  he  would  not  take  up  th 
quarrels  of  Port-Koyal  to  the  end  inspired  this  gentle  and  wi^ 
raillery : — 

"It  is  the  same  with  friends  as  with  clothes.  Some  are  onb 
good  for  summer,  others  for  winter,  others  for  spring  and  autumn 
But  as  we  only  put  off  our  summer  clothes  after  the  season  1 
past,  and  keep  them  for  another  year,  it  is  necessary  in  the  sam< 
way  to  keep  our  friends,  although  they  may  not  be  good  at  al 
times,  and  to  reserve  them  for  those  when  they  may  be  useful 
Some  are  only  good  for  the  month  of  July,  that  is  to  say,  whei 
there  is  no  cold  to  fear,  and  their  number  is  sufficiently  great.1 
(Essais,  t.  vii.  p.  167.) 

But  most  often  Nicole,  without  bestowing  much  care  on  th< 
form  (he  declares  that  he  is  incapable  of  a  double  attention) 
follows  his  thought,  and  conducts  his  fine  and  delicate  analysii 
at  a  uniform  and  rather  monotonous  pace.  He  has  been  unde: 
no  illusion  with  regard  to  this,  and  his  declaration  is  mos 
explicit :  "As  there  are  painters  who,  having  little  imagination 
give  all  their  characters  the  same  features,  there  are  also  peopL 
who  always  write  in  the  same  manner,  and  whose  style  is  alway: 
recognizable.  No  one  ever  had  this  defect  more  than  I. "  Nicole  wai 
not  the  man  to  make  Bossuet  change  his  opinion  on  the  judgmen 
already  delivered  by  him  in  1669  :  "The  style  of  MM.  de  Port 
Koyal  has  little  variety;  without  variety  there  is  no  pleasure.3 
We  know  the  passionate  outburst  of  J.  le  Maistre :  "  Nicole,  th< 
coldest,  the  greyest,  the  most  leaden,  the  most  insupportable  o: 
the  bores  of  that  great  and  tedious  house." 

We  are  here  a  long  way  from  the  enthusiasm  of  Mme.  d( 
S^vigne' :  "  What  language !  what  skill  in  the  arrangement  o: 


Introduction.  3  5 


the  words !  One  thinks  one  has  only  read  French  in  this  book." 
(12  January,  1676.) 

It  is  precisely  in  the  arrangement  of  the  words  and  the  turn  of 
the  phrase  that  Nicole  seems  to  us  absolutely  wanting  in  skill. 
The  expression  is  well  chosen,  exact,  sometimes  profound,  often 
fine  and  delicate.  But  it  most  often  loses  a  portion  of  its  good 
qualities  and  charms,  because  it  disappears  as  if  drowned  in 
a  drawling  and  cumbrous  sentence,  overloaded  with  incidental  or 
subordinate  propositions,  which  the  habitual  employment  of  the 
present  participle  makes  still  heavier.  Here  is  a  sufficiently 
striking  example.  Nicole  has  been  moved  by  the  gloomy  theories 
of  La  Rochefoucauld,  and  he  writes  :  "  So  many  secret  affectations 
glide  into  friendships,  that  I  scarcely  dare  to  say  that  I  love 
anyone,  for  fear  that  all  I  feel  for  him  may  not  be  reduced  to 
loving  myself,  there  being  nothing  more  usual  than  only  to  love 
in  others  the  favourable  sentiments  that  they  have  for  us,  when 
we  imagine  we  love  what  God  has  put  in  them."  (t.  vii.  p.  40.) 
On  reading  such  phrases,  and  they  abound  in  Nicole,  we  might 
say,  "  What  a  creditable  scruple !  What  tact  in  putting  us  on 
our  guard  without  discouraging  us  by  a  bitter  and  trenchant 
condemnation  of  friendship  ! "  But  we  should  never  say,  "  What 
skill  in  the  arrangement  of  the  words !  What  a  writer ! "  La 
Kochefoucauld  draws  this  praise  from  us  at  the  very  time  that  we 
repudiate  these  distressing  calumnies  against  the  human  heart. 

Notwithstanding  her  admiration,  Mme.  de  S^vigne*  had  too 
much  good  sense  and  soundness  of  judgment  not  to  take  exception 
several  times  to  the  essence  of  the  ideas,  and  not  to  point  out 
contradictions  in  them.  Even  in  that  famous  Traite  de  Vart 
de  vivre  en  paix  avec  les  hommes,  of  which  she  said  she  would 
like  "to  make  broth  and  swallow  it,7'  she  agrees  with  her  daughter 
that  if  peace  and  union  with  our  neighbour  are  so  precious, 
and  require  so  many  sacrifices,  "there  is  no  way  after  that  of 
being  indifferent  to  what  he  thinks  of  us,"  and  that  she  is  "less 
capable  than  anyone  of  understanding  this  perfection  which  is 
a  little  above  human  nature."  Her  judgment  is  more  severe  on 
the  Traite  de  la  soumission  a  la  volonte  de  Dieu:  "See  how  he 
represents  it  to  us  as  sovereign,  doing  all,  disposing  of  all, 
regulating  all.  I  agree  to  it,  that  is  what  I  believe ;  and  if,  on 


36  Port-Royal  Education. 


turning  over  the  leaf,  they  mean  the  reverse,  to  keep  on  good 
terms  with  both  sides,  they  will  have  on  that,  with  respect  to  me, 
the  fate  of  those  political  opportunists,  and  will  not  make  me 
change."  (25  May,  1680.) 

Would  anyone  believe  that  she  is  speaking  of  her  beloved 
Nicole  in  that  curious  letter  of  July  16,  16771  "There  is  the 
prettiest  gibberish  that  I  have  ever  seen  in  the  twenty-sixth  article 
of  the  last  volume  of  the  Essais  de  morale,  in  the  treatise  de  tenter 
Dieu.  That  is  very  amusing;  and  when,  besides,  we  are  sub- 
missive, that  morality  is  not  unsettled  by  it,  and  that  it  is  only  to 
confute  false  reasoning,  there  is  no  great  harm ;  for  if  they  would 
keep  silence,  we  would  say  nothing;  but  to  wish  to  establish 
their  maxims  by  every  means,  to  translate  St.  Augustine  for 
us,  lest  we  should  ignore  him,  to  publish  all  that  is  most  severe 
in  him,  and  then  to  sum  up,  like  Father  Bauny,  for  fear  of  losing 
the  right  of  scolding ;  that  is  provoking,  it  is  true.  .  .  .  May  I 
die  if  I  do  not  like  the  Jesuits  a  thousand  times  better ;  they  are 
at  least  consistent,  uniform  in  doctrine  and  morals.  Our  brethren 
speak  well  and  conclude  ill ;  they  are  not  sincere ;  here  I  am 
in  Escobar.  You  see  very  well,  my  daughter,  that  I  am  playing 
and  amusing  myself." 

On  looking  closely  into  the  Essais  of  Nicole  it  would  not 
be  difficult  to  point  out  many  exaggerations  and  inexact  ideas, 
false  wit,  "refinements  of  spiritual ity,"  a  certain  want  of  vigour 
and  authority,  of  impulse  and  enthusiasm  for  what  is  good.1 

Is  it  well  to  preach  such  enervating  doctrines  to  prepare  us 
to  cultivate  our  faculties  in  order  that  we  may  better  fulfil  our 
destiny  and  courageously  perform  the  duties  of  life  ?  "  Man's 
real  science  is  to  understand  the  nothingness  of  the  world,  and 
his  true  happiness  to  despise  it."  (t.  vii.  p.  3.)  "The  world  is 
but  a  great  hospital  full  of  patients."  (t.  vii.  p.  209.)  "The 
conversation  of  the  world  is  almost  constantly  the  school  of  the 
devil."  (t.  x.  p.  198.)  "The  devil  is  the  greatest  author  and  the 

1  Joubert,  who  calls  Nicole  "a  Pascal  without  style,"  and  praises,  not  the 
form,  but  "the  matter,  which  is  exquisite,"  admits,  however,  that  in  his 
Essais  "the  morality  of  the  gospel  is  perhaps  a  little  too  much  refined 
by  subtle  reasoning."  (Vol.  ii.  p.  165.)  Thus  Nicole  undertook  to  show  an 
officer  "a  hundred  deadly  sins  of  which  he  had  never  heard,  and  which  he 
did  not  know  at  all."  (Essais,  t.  vii.  p.  151.) 


Introduction.  37 


greatest  writer  in  the  world,  as  well  as  the  greatest  speaker,  since 
he  has  a  share  in  most  of  the  writings  and  speeches  of  men." 
(t.  xii.  p.  176.)  "If  Christ  brought  any  science  into  the  world  it 
was  that  of  despising  all  the  sciences  which  are  the  subject  and 
foundation  of  the  vanity  and  curiosity  of  men."1  (t.  xi.  p.  89.) 

What  shall  we  say  of  the  reflections  suggested  to  him  by 
his  asthma  ^  "  The  world  values  only  the  talents  of  action,  and 
to  be  good  for  nothing  is  to  be  a  subject  for  its  abhorrence.  This, 
however,  is  a  very  false  judgment,  which  has  its  source  only  in  the 
vanity  natural  to  man,  and  if  we  were  well  rid  of  it  we  should 
find  more  happiness  in  the  deprivation  of  the  talents  that  I 
call  the  talents  of  impotence  than  in  all  the  great  qualities." 
(t.  vii.  p.  162.) 

There  can  be  nothing  better  than  for  the  moralist  to  put  us  on 
our  guard  against  the  dangers  of  ambition.  But  is  it  not  forcing 
the  note  and  missing  the  aim  to  lay  down  this  principle :  "  No 
person  is  permitted  to  endeavour  to  raise  and  better  either  himself 
or  his  family'"?  (t.  xi.  p.  321.)  What  father  of  a  family,  seeking 
very  legitimately  to  prepare  a  better  position  for  his  children,  would 
take  seriously  the  reasons  appealed  to  by  Nicole,  that  it  is  render- 
ing our  salvation  more  difficult,  and  forsaking  the  example  of 
Christ,  whose  whole  life  was  only  a  continual  abasement  and 
humiliation  1 

Mme.  de  Sevigne  thinks  that  description  of  society  very 
amusing  in  which,  thanks  to  cupidity,  very  obliging  people  build 
and  furnish  our  houses,  weave  our  stuffs,  carry  our  letters,  run 
to  the  world's  end  to  fetch  provisions  and  materials,  or  cheerfully 
render  us  the  lowest  and  most  laborious  services.  The  idea 
is  neither  correct  nor  sound.  It  has  a  paradoxical  turn,  which 

1  How  much  better  Bossuet  keeps  within  bounds  and  reconciles  every- 
thing :  "I  am  not  one  of  those  who  make  much  of  human  knowledge, 
yet,  nevertheless,  I  confess  that  I  cannot  contemplate  without  admiration  the 
wonderful  discoveries  that  science  has  made  in  order  to  investigate  nature, 
nor  the  many  fine  inventions  that  art  has  found  to  adapt  it  to  our  use. 
Man  has  almost  changed  the  face  of  the  world.  .  .  .  He  has  mounted  to  the 
skies  ;  to  walk  more  safely,  he  has  taught  the  stars  to  guide  him  in  his 
travels ;  to  measure  out  his  life  more  evenly,  he  has  forced  the  sun  to 
render  an  account,  so  to  say,  of  all  his  steps."  (Sermons,  4e  semaine  de 
careme. )  Such  language  honoured  the  pulpit ;  Nicole  only  made  a  oanting 
discourse. 


38  Port- Royal  Education. 

would  make  it  accepted  with  more  propriety  in  a  humorous 
writer.  In  a  serious  moral  lesson  it  is  needful  to  adopt  another 
tone,  and  to  speak  in  better  terms  of  that  admirable  harmony 
of  economical  interests  that  Bastiat  has  so  eloquently  described, 
and  which  so  happily  inspired  the  fine  sonnet  of  M.  Sully- 
Prudhomme.  The  poet,  awaking  from  a  dream,  in.  which  he 
believes  himself  for  an  instant  abandoned  by  the  labourer,  the"' 
weaver,  and  the  mason,  and  seeing  with  pleasure  everybody  at 
work,  far  from  stigmatizing  them  with  the  name  of  grasping, 
finds  only  a  cry  of  thankfulness  in  his  heart : — 

"  And  since  that  day  I  have  loved  them  all !  " 

Is  not  that  grave  discussion  of  seventeen  pages  on  this  strange 
question,  May  a  person  entirely  devoted  to  God  have  his  portrait 
taken  for  his  friends  and  neighbours  mere  sentimentalism  1  Christ 
did,  it  is  true,  send  to  Abgarus,  King  of  Edessa,  the  impression  of 
His  countenance  on  a  cloth,  but  that  was  to  induce  him  to  be  con- 
verted. "  It  would  be  criminal  in  us  to  wish  to  be  considered  and 
loved  as  the  Son  of  God  wished  to  be  considered  and  loved." 
(t.  viii.  p.  196.)  And  the  scene  of  the  staircase?  A  female 
devotee  was  showing  Nicole  out  ...  to  honour  the  steps  of 
Jesus  Christ !  Notwithstanding  his  edification  at  the  reply, 
he  endeavoured,  but  in  vain,  to  show  her  that  useless  steps  could 
no  more  honour  those  of  Christ  than  words  without  deeds  and 
without  necessity  could  honour  His  words,  "  She  did  not  well 
understand  my  reply,  and  continued  to  honour  Jesus  Christ 
by  showing  me  out."  (t.  vii.  p.  185.) 

Even  in  serious  matters  Nicole,  by  his  turn  of  mind,  gives 
a  euphuistic  character  to  the  moral  lesson,  and  thus  impairs  its 
gravity. 

Ancient  philosophy  and  Christianity  have  both  recommended 
as  one  of  the  most  useful  exercises  the  examination  of  the 
conscience,  the  regulation  of  the  employment  of  time,  incessant 
watchfulness  over  our  bad  propensities,  in  order  to  remedy 
the  evil  at  once.  Let  us  listen  to  Nicole :  "  To  facilitate  this 
practice,  let  her. imagine  that  a  person  who  resembles  her,  that  is, 
who  has  the  same  maladies  as  she  has,  asks  her  advice,  and  that 
she  prescribes  all  that  conies  into  her  mind;  let  her  write 


Introduction.  39 


down  her  thoughts  on  this  subject,  and  let  her  play  the  directress 
with  respect  to  this  person,  who  will  not  be  different  from  herself. 
There  is  nothing  but  what  is  reasonable  in  that,  for  we  are,  in  fact, 
double.  It  is  a  sort  of  game  that  I  propose,  but  which  will 
not  fail  to  relieve  the  mind."  (t.  vii.  p.  47.) 

After  having  written  much  to  dissuade  from  marriage,  doesi 
he  not  ruin  his  whole  argument  by  this  subtle  distinction,  that  hej 
has  spoken  "as  a  mere  advocate"  and  not  "as  a  judge,"  on 
by  this  comparison  with  a  person  who,  being  questioned  about? 
two  roads,  contents  himself  with  showing  the  one  he  knows 
best? 

As  he  pleases  himself  immoderately  in  his  letter  to  Mile. 
Aubry,  the  directress  of  the  school  that  he  founded  at  Troyes 
in  1678,  in  developing  that  affected  allegory  of  the  pustules 
(envy,  jealousy,  malignity),  and  as  he  is  proud  of  his  analysis, 
how  the  Hotel  of  Kambouillet  would  have  applauded !  "  You 
did  not  yet  know  that  one  of  your  duties  was  to  cleverly  pierce 
these  pustules  of  the  soul ;  I  tell  you  so  now."  (t.  viii.  p.  58.) 

To  resume,  it  would  be  difficult  to  conclude,  with  Mme.  de 
Sevigne,  that  all  that  "is  of  the  same  stuff  as  Pascal."  And 
if  we  cede  this  point,  it  would  be  on  condition  of  immediately 
adding  this  witty  repartie  of  M.  V.  Fournel :  "  Yes,  but  the 
tailor  is  different." 

His  contemporaries  boast  of  his  "golden  pen."  Nicole  lacks 
many  things  for  posterity  to  ratify  this  eulogy.  Like  all  the 
writers  of  Port-Royal,  by  an  exaggerated  scruple  of  piety,  he 
treats  the  question  of  style  too  disdainfully  as  a  vanity.  He  is  < 
little  concerned  about  negligence  of  style,  the  matter  alone 
deserves  his  attention.  Truth  appears  to  him  worthy  of  respect, 
however  she  may  be  clothed.  The  only  question  is  to  know  if  we 
are  not  wanting  in  respect  and  compromising  her  influence 
by  refusing  her  the  garb  that  is  most  becoming  to  present  herself 
to  the  world  and  to  succeed.  Nicole  says  elsewhere  to  Mme.  de  La 
Fayette  that  he  does  not  write  for  the  public,  but  only  to  employ 
himself  and  occupy  his  mind ; l  that  his  writings  were  not  made 

1  Nicole  even  says,  humorously  enough,  of  an  apology  that  he  had  com- 
posed, that  his  only  aim  was  *'  to  procure  sleep  ...  It  seems  to  me  that  it 
is  a  very  legitimate  purpose  to  wish  to  sleep."  When  his  system  of  General 


40  Port- Royal  Education. 

to  be  printed.  When  the  opportunity  made  him  hastily  take  up 
the  design  of  publishing  them,  "being  very  much  occupied  with 
other  things,  I  satisfied  myself  by  reading  them  over  quickly, 
paying  special  attention  to  the  matter.  So  that  not  being  capable 
of  a  divided  attention,  I  am  astonished  how  many  inexact  expres- 
sions have  escaped  me. 1  All  that  I  can  do,  then,  is  to  beg 
intelligent  persons  to  say  nothing  about  them,  and  to  let  this 
edition  be  exhausted  under  favour  of  the  indulgence  of  the 
public.  I  shall  be  more  exact  another  time  if  I  have  leisure  ;  and 
if  not  I  shall  put  up  with  the  reputation  of  writing  badly,  which 
is  not  a  great  evil."  But,  then,  why  print?  Posterity  only 
collects  and  preserves  well-finished  works.  Voltaire  is  a  little 
premature  in  this  prophecy:  "The  Essais  de  morale,  which 
are  useful  to  mankind,  will  not  perish."  (Siede  de  Louis  XIV. , 
Ecrivains.)  D'Aguesseau,  like  Rollin,  had  already  recommended 
to  his  son  only  "  the  first  four  volumes  of  the  Essais  de  morale, 
which  are  more  carefully  finished  than  the  rest,  and  in  which  it  is 
easier  to  perceive  a  plan  and  regular  order."  (4th  Instruction.)  In 
our  time  M.  Silvestre  de  Saci  has  reduced  to  one  volume  his 
Choix  de  petits  traites  de  morale  (1857,  16mo),  and  doubtless 
the  few  readers  of  an  author  formerly  so  much  appreciated  might 
easily  be  counted.  He  suffers  the  natural  law  of  retaliation.  He 
has  not  thought  sufficiently  of  us,  and  we  forget  him.  What  a 
disillusion  would  not  Mme.  de  Sevigne  suffer  on  vainly  seeking 
the  name  of  her  favourite  author  in  the  fine  study  of  M.  Prevost- 
Paradol  on  les  Moralistes  fran$ais.  The  eminent  critic  has  not 
given  him  the  most  humble  place  between  Montaigne,  La  Boetie, 
Pascal,  La  Rochefoucauld,  La  Bruyere,  arid  Vauvenargues. 

There  is  among  the  Essais  de  morale  a  tract  which  more 
especially  interests  us,  De  ^education  d'un  prince.  It  does 
honour  to  the  educators  of  Port-Eoyal.  We  extract  a  few 
thoughtful  pages,  in  which  the  reader  will  find  useful  subjects 
for  meditation.  What  a  fine  and  broad  definition  !  "  The  aim 

Grace  was  attacked,  he  answered  the  objections  by  repeating  his  saying  :  "  It 
is  a  sort  of  narcotic  that  I  have  always  used."  (Quoted  by  Sainte-Beuve, 
t.  iv.  p.  492.) 

1  We  read  in  the  same  letter :  "  I  should  not  dare  to  say  to  what  the 
corrections  that  I  might  make,  if  I  had  leisure,  would  amount,  there  are  so 
many  things  to  observe  when  negligence  of  style  is  to  be  avoided." 


Introduction.  41 


of  instruction  is  to  carry  the  mind  to  the  point  that  it  is  capable 
of  attaining."  This  is  a  manly  sentence  that  redeems  many  dis- 
couraging phrases  on  the  vanity  of  curiosity  and  on  the  contempt 
for  the  sciences.  Nicole  is  not  less  happy,  both  in  thought  and 
expression,  when  he  points  out  to  the  masters  that  their  part  is 
"to  expose  to  the  inward  light  of  the  mind"  the  object  of  their 
lessons,  and  that  without  this  light  "  instruction  is  as  useless  as 
wishing  to  show  pictures  during  the  night.  The  mind  of  children 
is  almost  entirely  full  of  darkness,  and  only  catches  glimpses  of 
small  rays  of  light.  Thus  everything  consists  in  husbanding 
these  rays,  in  augmenting  them,  and  in  exposing  to  them  what 
one  wishes  them  to  understand.  .  .  .  We  must  look  where  there 
is  light,  and  present  to  it  what  we  wish  to  make  them  understand." 
A  perusal  of  this  little  tract  cannot  be  too  much  recommended. 
A  great  deal  of  practical  advice  on  the  different  branches  of  teach- 
ing will  be  found  in  it.  It  is  one  of  the  most  authoritative  and 
suggestive  books  of  Nicole. 

After  Lancelot  and  Nicole,  the  most  eminent  name  is  that  of 
Coutel,  or  Coustel  (1621-1704).  Lemaitre,  in  a  memoir  inserted 
in  the  Supplement  au  Necrologe,  enters  in  May,  1650,  the  arrival 
at  Port-Eoyal  des  Champs  of  "  M.  Coutel,  Picard,  S9avant  en  grec 
et  en  latin."  Since  the  establishment  of  the  Petites  Ecoles  in  the 
rue  Saint-Dominique-d'Enfer  (1646)  he  had  been  placed  in  charge 
of  a  division  of  six  pupils.  It  was  only  in  1687  that  he  drew  up 
the  Rules  for  the  Education  of  Children,  a  work  dedicated  to 
Cardinal  Furstemberg,  whose  nephews  he  had  educated.  It  is 
the  most  complete  and  methodical  work  of  Port-Royal  on  pedagogy 
that  remains  to  us.  The  matter  is  worth  much  more  than  the 
form.  Coustel  was  far  from  being  a  good  writer,  but  he  was  an 
earnest  and  devoted  teacher,  modest  and  sensible,  who  knew 
children  well  and  loved  them.  The  prolixity,  negligence,  and 
commonplace  of  his  style  condemned  him.  to  a  prompt  oblivion. 

As  to  Guyot,  it  is  strange  that  the  historians  of  Port-Koyal 
have  not  given  him  a  short  notice.  Besogne  declares  that 
"nothing  is  known  of  him."  Guyot  was,  however,  one  of  the 
masters  on  the  first  foundation,  and  is  the  author  of  numerous 
publications.  We  owe  him  A  New  Translation  of  the  Captives  of 
Plautus,  1666  ;  Moral  and  Political  Letters  of  Cicero  to  his 


Port-Royal  Education. 


friend  Atticus,  1666  ;  A  New  Translation  of  a  New  Collection 
of  the  Best  Letters  of  Cicero  to  his  Friends,  1666  ;  Letters  of 
Cicero  to  his  Common  Friends,  and  to  Atticus,  his  Particular 
Friend,  1668;1  A  Political  Letter  of  Cicero  to  his  Brother 
Quintus,  and  Scipio's  Dream,  1670;  A  New  Translation  of  the 
Bucolics  of  Yirgil,  1678;  Moral  and  Epigrammatic  Flowers  from 
Ancient  and  Modern  Writers,  1669.  And  at  the  beginning  of 
several  of  these  works  he  has  developed,  in  very  extended  and 
important  prefaces,  several  of  the  pedagogic  reforms  in  the 
realization  of  which  he  had  collaborated  in  the  Petites  Ecoles. 

The  reason  of  the  silence  of  Port-Royal  on  this  master,  who 
played  such  an  active  part,  has  been  given  by  Barbier,  in  a 
notice  on  Th.  Guyot  (Magasin  encyclopedique,  August,  1813);  he 
did  not  remain  faithful  to  Port-Royal.  One  of  his  works, 
published  in  1666,  is  dedicated  to  Messeigneurs  de  Mont  baron, 
students  with  the  R.R.  P.P.  Jesuites  at  the  College  of  Clermont, 
"  that  celebrated  school,"  says  he,  "  that  piety  has  dedicated  to 
science  and  virtue."  He  disowned  his  old  friends  in  their  mis- 
fortune, and  paid  court  to  their  relentless  persecutors.  Nevertheless, 
some  extracts  from  one  of  his  prefaces,  on  teaching  reading,  on  the 
study  of  the  French  language,  and  on  the  advantages  of  oral  in- 
struction, will  be  read  with  interest. 

It  is  proper  to  devote  a  few  lines  at  least  to  the  austere  and 
venerable  Wallon  de  Beaupuis,  director  of  the  Petites  Ecoles  de 
Port-Royal.  Born  at  Beauvais  in  1621,  he  commenced  his  studies 
in  the  college  of  that  town,  partly  under  the  celebrated  Godefroi 
Hermant;  then,  after  a  fourth  year  of  rhetoric  with  the  Jesuits  at 

1  The  translator  causes  a  smile  when,  under  pretence  of  politeness,  he 
introduces  into  the  letters  of  Cicero  and  his  friends  our  French  forms  : 
"Monsieur  wtre  frere,  madame  votre  m&re,  mademoiselle  votre  fillet  madame 
votre  femme,"  transforms  Balbus  into  M.  Lebegue,  and  Pomponius  into  -M. 
de  Pomponne  !  But  what  is  more  serious  is  that  in  an  excellent  preface, 
which  sums  up  all  education  in  "  precision  of  mind  and  rectitude  of  will," 
he  several  times  compares  the  child  to  a  bird  in  a  cage  !  "By  restraining 
and  confining  him  within  the  limits  of  a  strict  discipline,  as  in  a  cage,  to 
teach  him  to  be  wise  and  virtuous  ..."  (p.  114).  "As  far  as  possible, 
all  the  openings  of  the  cage,  which  give  to  this  spirit  the  greatest  desire 
to  go  out,  must  be  closed.  Some  open  bars  ....  to  live  and  be  in 
health  ;  this  is  what  we  do  with  nightingales  to  make  them  sing,  and  to 
parrots  to  teach  them  to  talk"  (p.  127).  "More  than  one  cage  is  necessary 
for  him  to  live  and  to  render  him  capable  of  instruction  "  (p.  137). 


Introduction.  43 


Paris,  he  studied  philosophy  with  Arnauld  at  the  College  of  Le 
Mans,  and  then  theology  at  the  College  of  Clugny.  The  book  on 
Frequente  Communion  won  him  over  to  Port-Royal,  where  he  was 
admitted  in  1644.  He  was  entrusted  with  the  charge  of  the  school 
in  the  rue  Saint-Dominique;  then,  in  1653,  with  that  of  Le  Chesnai, 
of  which  he  has  left  us  the  regulations.  He  was  engaged,  besides, 
in  collecting  extracts  from  the  Fathers  to  aid  Arnauld  and  Nicole 
in  the  composition  of  their  works.  After  the  breaking-up  of  the 
Petites  Ecoles  he  was  ordained  priest,  notwithstanding  his  re- 
sistance, and  was  for  some  time  preceptor  to  the  two  young 
Periers,  Pascal's  nephews ;  then,  in  1676,  he  had  the  direction 
of  the  seminary  at  Beauvais.  Disgraced  at  the  end  of  three 
years,  and  deprived  of  all  employment,  he  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  the  most  austere  retreat,  without  any  other  recrea- 
tion than  an  annual  journey  to  Port-Royal.  He  died  in  February, 
1709,  at  the  age  of  87,  bearing  witness  to  himself  that  "by  the 
grace  of  God  he  had  sought  always  and  above  everything  the 
supreme  good."  His  work  at  Port-Royal  was  more  religious  than 
pedagogic. 

Dr.  Antoine  Arnauld1  deserves  a  place  of  honour  among  the 
pedagogues  of  Port-Royal,  although  the  great  business  of  his  life 
had  been  to  fulfil  the  last  vow  of  his  dying  mother,  that  of  Saint- 


1  An  tome  Arnauld  was  born  at  Paris,  February  6,  1612.  He  was  the 
twentieth  child  of  the  celebrated  advocate  Arnauld,  who,  in  1594,  had 
defended  the  University  against  the  Jesuits  with  so  much  vehemence.  This 
was  the  most  illustrious  conquest  of  Saint-Cyran  during  his  imprisonment. 
Entirely  devoted  to  Port  -  Royal,  to  which  he  made  a  donation  of  his 
property,  priest  and  doctor  in  1641,  he  devoted  his  life  to  the  defence  of 
religion  and  morality.  His  very  numerous  works,  almost  exclusively 
polemical,  form  no  less  than  forty-two  folio  volumes.  The  greater  number 
have  suffered  the  fate  reserved  for  this  kind  of  books.  "The  fire  and 
division  becoming  extinct,"  says  La  Bruyere,  "they  are  like  last  year's 
almanacks."  His  treatise,  De  la  frequence  Communion  (1643),  deserves 
special  mention.  "This  book  caused  something  like  a  revolution  in  the 
manner  of  understanding  and  practising  piety,  and  also  in  the  manner  of 
writing  theology.  ...  It  was,  to  say  truth,  the  first  manifestation  of  that 
Port-Royal  of  Saint-Cyran,  which  until  then  had  remained  rather  in  the 
shade,  in  a  sort  of  mystery  conformable  to  the  character  of  the  great 
director."  (SAINTE-BEUVE,  t.  ii.  p.  166.)  Almost  always  compelled  to  hide 
and  to  fly,  he  died  in  exile  at  Brussels,  8  August,  1694.  His  burial 
place  was  kept  secret,  lest  the  Jesuits  should  have  him  disinterred,  as  they 
did  Jausenius. 


44  Port-Royal  Education. 

Cyran,  and  his  own  oath  as  doctor,  namely,  the  defence  of  the 
truth.  It  was  in  the  midst  of  his  constantly-recurring  struggles 
against  the  Jesuits  Sirmond,  Petau,  Nouet,  Brisacier,  Annat,  and 
Maimbourg,  against  the  faculty  of  theology,  against  the  assembly 
of  the  clergy,  against  the  archbishops  of  Paris,  Perefixe,  and 
Harlai,  against  the  archbishop  of  Embrun,  against  the  doctors 
Morel  and  Lemoine,  against  Eichard  Simon,  against  Jurieu, 
against  the  bishops  of  Lavaur  and  Yabres,  against  Malebranche, 
against  the  calvinists,  and  against  Nicole  himself,  that  the  inde- 
fatigable athlete,  as  if  in  play  and  to  fill  up  his  scanty  moments 
of  leisure,  composed  his  most  justly  estimated  works.  The 
Grammaire  generate  et  raisonnee  is,  to  tell  the  truth,  all  his  own. 
His  letter  to  some  members  of  the  Academy  on  the  difficulties 
of  French  syntax  bears  witness  to  the  power  and  acuteriess  of  his 
criticism,  and  would  alone  suffice  to  justify  the  estimate  of  Bossuet 
— a  sound  and  powerful  arguer. 

We  know  the  occasion  on  which  he  composed  the  Logic,  or  the 
Art  of  Thinking.  "  One  day,"  says  Besogne,  "when  M.  Arnauld 
was  conversing  with  several  persons,  among  whom  was  the  young 
due  de  Chevreuse,  the  son  of  the  due  de  Luines,  he  told  this 
young  nobleman  that  if  he  would  give  himself  the  trouble  he 
would  engage  to  teach  him  in  four  or  five  days  all  that  was  worth 
knowing  in  Logic.  The  proposition  surprised  the  company  a  little. 
They  conversed  about  it  for  some  time.  At  last  M.  Arnauld,  who 
had  made  the  offer,  resolved  to  make  the  trial.  He  set  to  work 
to  compose  a  short  abridgment  of  Logic,  which  he  hoped  to 
finish  the  same  day.  But,  while  reflecting,  so  many  new  thoughts 
occurred  to  his  mind  that  he  employed  four  or  five  days,  during 
which  he  formed  the  body  of  the  work.  The  paper  was  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  young  duke,  who  reduced  it  to  four  tables,  and 
by  learning  one  each  day  he  knew  the  whole  at  the  end  of  four 
days,  so  that  the  prediction  of  four  or  five  days  came  true  to  the 
letter."  (t.  v.  p.  524.) 

He  composed  his  Elements  of  geometry  in  the  same  way,  at  a 
moment's  notice,  so  to  say,  during  a  slight  illness,  in  a  few  days 
of  liberty  in  a  country  house  at  Le  Chesnai,  "without  any  book." 
And  if  we  may  believe  a  note  of  the  editor,  Pascal  had  judged 
this  work  so  favourably  that  he  had  burnt  an  essay  on  this  science 


Introduction.  45 


when  he  saw  the  manner  in  which  Arnauld  had  remedied  the 
confusion  imputed  to  Euclid. 

Is  it  not  very  touching  to  see  him  engrossed  with  a  question 
of  pure  pedagogy  in  the  midst  of  the  worry  of  persecution,  and 
at  a  time  when  he  was  obliged  to  hide?  "You  will  laugh,"  he 
writes,  January  31,  1656,  to  the  Mother  Angelique,  "at  what 
gives  me  occasion  to  write  to  you.  There  is  a  little  boy  about 
twelve  years  old  who  does  not  know  how  to  read.  I  wish  to 
try  if  he  can  learn  by  M.  Pascal's  method.  I  therefore  beg  you 
to  finish  what  you  have  begun  to  set  down  in  writing."  (t.  i. 
p.  101.)  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  Mother  Angelique  laughed 
when  she  received  this  letter;1  we,  however,  are  not  tempted 
to  do  so ;  we  admire  the  good  heart  that  reveals  itself  with  such 
amiable  simplicity. 

M.  Sainte-Beuve  has  devoted  the  last  chapter  of  his  third 
volume  to  the  most  eminent  students  of  Port-Koyal  (Jerome  and 
Thierry  Bignon,  Eacine,  Le  Nain  de  Tillemont,  &c.).  I  am  happy 
to  fill  up  a  grave  lacuna  by  adding  the  name  of  Boisguilbert  to 
his  list. 

In  the  Advertisement  to  the  reader,  in  one  of  his  translations, 
the  precursor  of  the  economists,  whom  history  has  finally  avenged 
of  the  scorn  of  Voltaire,  thus  expresses  himself :  "  Although  it 
seems  that  in  our  days  all  the  sciences  have  been  carried  to  the 
highest  point  that  they  can  ever  attain,  we  may  say  that  that 
of  making  Greek  and  Latin  writers  speak  our  language  has  gone 
further,  nothing  being  able  to  be  added  to  the  works  of  those 
gentlemen  of  the  Academy,  of  Monsieur  d'Andilly,  who  seems 
to  have  surpassed  himself  in  his  Josephus,  and  of  those  famous 
anonymous  writers  so  celebrated  throughout  France;  so  I  shall 
candidly  confess  that  if  I  am  sufficiently  happy  that  this  small 
work  is  not  found  very  imperfect,  I  owe  it  to  some  education  that 

1  I  judge  so  by  this  detail  that  the  abbe  Racine  relates :  Some  of  the 
sisters  asked  the  Mother  Angelique  whether  their  novices  and  boarders 
would  not  be  restored  to  them.  "My  daughters,"  she  replied,  "do  not 
trouble  yourselves  about  that.  I  am  not  anxious  about  whether  your 
novices  and  boarders  will  be  restored  to  you,  but  I  am  that  the  spirit  of 
retirement,  simplicity,  and  poverty  shall  be  preserved  among  us.  Provided 
that  these  things  continue,  laugh  at  all  the  rest."  (Abrfye  de  Vhistoire 
ecclesiastique,  t.  x.  p.  541.) 


46  Port-Royal  Education. 

I  received  among  them    in  my   youth."1    (Roman  History,   by 
Herodian,  1675.) 

The  thinker  and  patriot,  whose  enthusiastic  eulogy2  Michelet 
so  justly  made,  is  not  one  of  the  least  glories  with  which  Port- 
Eoyal  may  adorn  herself. 

OF  THE  EDUCATION  OF  GIRLS  AT  PORT-ROYAL. 

"At  Port-Koyal,"  writes  M.  Cousin,  "the  women  are,  perhaps, 
more  extraordinary,  and  assuredly  quite  as  great  as  the  men.  Is 
not  the  Mother  Angelique  the  equal  of  Arnauld  by  her  intrepidity 
of  soul  and  elevation  of  thought*?  3  Is  Nicole  much  above  the 
Mother  Agnes  1  She  has  more  energy  with  as  much  gentleness. 
And  did  not  their  niece,  the  Mother  Angelique  de  Saint-Jean, 
use,  in  the  government  of  Port-Royal,  a  prudence,  ability,  and 
courage  that  her  brother,  the  minister,  might4  have  envied  her] 
Who  among  the  men  has  dared  and  struggled  more,  and  has 
suffered  more,  and  more  patiently  than  all  these  women?  They 
also  have  known  and  braved  persecution,  calumny,  exile,  and 
prison.  .  .  ."  (Jacqueline  Pascal,  p,  491.) 

But  if  these  persons  are  morally  equal,  is  it  the  same  with 
their  pedagogic  work  ?  We  have  not,  so  to  say,  any  information 
about  the  education  of  the  girls  at  Port-Royal.5  We  know,  in 

1  The  names  of  Boisguilbert  and  his  brother  are,  in  fact,  mentioned  in  the 
Ties  inter  essantes  et  edifiantes,  p.  86. 

2  "May  we  see  on  the  bridge  of  Rouen,  opposite  Corneille,  the  statue 
of  a  great  citizen  who,  a  hundred  years  before  1789,  sent  out  from  Rouen 
the  first  sound  of  the  Revolution  with  as  much  vigour  and  more  gravity  than 
Mirabeau  did  later  ! " 

3  "  M.  d'Andilly  said  to  me,  'Count  all  my  brothers,  iny  children,  and 
myself  as  fools  in  comparison  with  Angelique.'     Nothing  that  has  come  out 
of  those  parts  has  ever  been  good  which  has  not  been  amended  and  approved 
by  her ;  she  is  steeped  in  all  the  languages  and  sciences  ;  in  fine,  she  is  a 
prodigy."    (Lettre  de  Mme.  de  Stvigne',  29  Nov.,  1679.)    Sainte-Beuve  equally 
pays  homage  to  this  great  mind :  "No  character  in  our  subject  appears  to 
us  more  truly  great  and  royal  than  she — she  and  Saint-Cyran."    (t.  iv. 
p.  160.) 

4  M.  de  Pomponne,  secretary  of  state,  charg6  d'affaires  etrangeres  from 
1671  to  1679. 

8  Here  are  a  few  dates  of  the  establishment  of  the  schools,  and  a  few 
figures  for  the  number  of  pupils.  In  1609,  the  date  of  the  reformation  of 
the  monastery  by  the  Mother  Angelique,  the  Sister  Louise  Sainte-Praxede 
de  Lamoignon  was  appointed  mistress  of  the  boarders,  as  being  the  most 


Introduction.  47 


a  general  manner,  that  it  was  much  praised  and  sought  after. 
Testimony  in  its  favour  is  not  wanting.  "A  great  number  of 
girls  brought  up  in  this  monastery,"  says  Racine,  "might  be  cited 
who  have  since  edified  the  world  by  their  wisdom  and  virtue. 
j  We  know  with  what  feelings  of  admiration  and  thankfulness 
I  they  (women  of  quality)  have  always  spoken  of  the  education 
\  that  they  had  received  there."  The  abbe  Fromageau,  who  was 
sent  by  the  archbishop  of  Paris,  May  9,  1679,  to  make  an 
inquiry  by  the  king's  order,  dwelt  at  length,  Besogne  relates 
(t.  ii.  p.  507),  "  on  the  excellent  education  that  was  given  to  the 
children  of  whom  he  mentioned,  as  an  example,  the  young 
demoiselle  Bignon."  A  few  days  after,  the  archbishop  "ex- 
hausted himself  in  eulogies  of  the  virtue  of  the  nuns,  and  of 
the  excellent  education  they  gave  to  the  children.1  And  when 
the  president  de  Guedreville,  whose  daughter  was  a  boarder  at 
Port-Royal,  came  to  inquire  what  grave  reason  caused  the  dis- 
missal of  the  boarders,  the  prelate  assured  him  of  the  irreproach- 
able management  of  the  house,  and  of  the  excellence  of  the 
education  that  was  received  there."2 

But  there  is  an  absolute  want  of  proofs.  Where  are  the 
programmes  of  studies?  What  methods  did  the  mistresses 
employ?  What  books  did  they  put  into  the  hands  of  their 
pupils?  What  traces  have  they  left  of  their  teaching  and  of 

capable  of  any  of  the  twelve  professed  nuns  of  Port-Royal.  The  monastery 
was  transferred  in  1626  to  the  faubourg  Saint- Jacques  (now  the  MaterniU). 
The  house  of  Port-Royal  des  Champs  was  re-opened  in  1648.  In  1661,  at 
the  time  of  the  closing  of  the  schools,  there  were  21  boarders  in  Paris,  and 
20  at  the  Champs.  Besogne  gives  the  list  of  them.  (t.  i.  p.  412.)  At  the 
"  peace  of  the  church"  in  1669,  the  boarders  were  again  admitted  into  the  two 
houses,  henceforth  completely  separated.  But  on  the  death  of  the  duchesse 
de  Longueville  (1679),  the  king  ordered  them  to  be  definitely  sent  back  to 
their  parents.  Besogne  counts  then  42  pupils.  Nicole  had  founded  a  girls' 
school  at  Troyes  in  the  preceding  year.  The  teaching  sisters,  or  black  sisters, 
who  were  in  charge  of  it  were  ordered  not  to  teach  any  more  in  1742,  and 
in  1749  were  dispersed.  This  last  information  is  furnished  us  by  M.  Th. 
Boutiot.  (Histoire  de  ^instruction  publique  et  populaire  d  Troyes  pendant  les 
quatre  demiers  siedes,  1864.) 

1  "  There  was  nothing  to  find  fault  with  in  the  education  that  she  gave  to 
the  children,  he  told  the  abbess  ;  on  the  contrary,  nowhere  was  it  so  good." 
(Hist.  gen.  de  P.-R.y  t.  vii.  p.  318.) 

2  Clemencet  makes  him  say:    "They  train  the  boarders  perfectly  well, 
not  only  in  piety  and  morals,  but  also  by  forming  their  minaa  ;  there  is  no 
place  where  they  would  be  better  for  all  things  than  there. 


48  Port-Royal  Education. 

I  their  system  of  education  *\  Eacine  indeed  tells  us  :  "  They  were 
jnot  satisfied  with  training  them  up  in  piety ;  they  also  took  great 
[pains  to  form  their  minds  and  reason,  and  laboured  to  render 
them  equally  capable  of  becoming  some  day  either  perfect  nuns 
or  excellent  mothers."  (Abrege  de  Vhistoire  de  Port-Royal.)  The 
programme  certainly  is  excellent ;  it  is  very  unfortunate  that  the 
proofs  in  support  of  it  are  absolutely  wanting. 

The  respectable  du  Fosse"  (Memoir es  pour  servir  a  TJiistoire  de 
Port-Royal,  p.  378)  extols  the  merits  of  Mother  Angelique 
Arnauld,  who  for  twenty-seven  years  was  at  the  head  of  the 
community.  He  praises  her  ability  "  in  making  shrines,  like  the 
most  clever  architects,  or  wax  figures  better  finished  than  those 
that  are  seen  at  Benoit's ;  in  writing  letters  that  touch  the  heart 
and  elevate  the  mind  " ;  he  praises  her  sound  piety,  her  profound 
^  humility,  her  ardour  for  penance,  and  her  contempt  of  the  world. 
|Ent-tliere  is  not  a  word  relating  to  education.  And,  in  fact,  the 
Mother  Angelique  in  her  Entretiens  et  Conferences  has  never 
treated  a  question  having  a  bearing  on  education.  Once  only 
a  sister  consulted  her  about  the  absence  of  mind  that  children 
caused  her.  The  answer  was  so  short  that  the  poor  sister  did  not 
understand  it,  and  dared  not  press  the  matter. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  passages  not  very  en- 
couraging as  to  the  intellectual  development  of  the  pupils. 

Page  377  :  "  The  demon  delivered  a  discourse  on  philosophy 
which  lasted  two  hours,  the  most  lofty  and  elegant  that  this 
philosopher  had  ever  heard.  He  was  quite  delighted  with  it; 
but  the  moment  it  was  finished  he  forgot  it  so  entirely  that  he 
could  not  even  remember  a  single  word  .  .  . ;  this  discourse, 
which  appeared  so  admirable  and  was  so  useless,  shows  that  all 
human  sciences  are  but  vanity,  and  that  they  are  often  more 
hurtful  than  useful,  because  they  puff  up  the  mind.'* 

Page  399  :  "  Eejoice,  ye  poor  and  unlearned,  without  books, 
without  reading  or  elevated  conversation,  in  preparing  your 
vegetables,  in  boiling  your  pot,  if  you  are  satisfied  with  your 
condition,  if  you  are  contented  to  be  the  least  in  the  house  of 
God,  if  you  have  no  desire  for  another  condition;  the  Son  of 
God  came  for  you.  Have  no  care,  He  Himself  will  convert  your 
heart :  fear  not  the  lack  of  instruction." 


Introduction.  49 


Judging  from  the  writings  of  the  Mother  Agnes,  teaching 
appears  to  be  an  unpleasant  task  imposed  on  the  sisters:1  "You 
must  not,  if  you  please,"  we  read  in  a  letter  of  March  18,  1655, 
to  the  sister  Marie-Dorothe'e  Perdreau,  "  desire  to  be  exempt  from 
the  service  of  the  children,  although  it  may  be  unpleasant  to 
you ;  for,  since  we  receive  them  in  this  house,  the  lot  may  fall 
upon  you  as  well  as  another."  The  Constitutions  force  them, 
nevertheless,  on  this  course,  while  recommending  them  to  apply 
themselves  to  their  task  with  "great  disinterestedness,  dreading 
this  task  on  account  of  the  many  opportunities  there  are  for 
making  mistakes,  for  diverting  oneself  too  much,  and  losing  the 
spirit  of  meditation,  which  it  is  not  easy  to  preserve  in  such  a 
great  employment."  Want  of  professional  qualification,  far  from 
being  taken  into  consideration  in  the  interest  of  the  children,  is 
precisely  a  motive  for  the  superiors  for  choosing  the  nuns  who,v 
for  the  work  of  their  salvation,  need  to  be  humbled  and  to  suffer. 
"Do  not  put  forward  as  an  excuse,"  the  Mother  Agnes  writes 
again,  "  that  you  do  not  discharge  this  duty  well,  and  that  you 
make  many  mistakes,  for  it  is  for  that  very  reason  that  perhaps 
it  will  be  found  fitting  to  leave  you  there  still,  that  you  may 
better  understand  your  incapacity  .  .  .  God  permits  the  children 
not  to  behave  to  you  as  they  ought  that  these  insubordinate 
pupils  may  make  you  suffer  and  humble  yourself. "  (Faugere,  t.  ii. 
p.  465  and  461.) 

This  is  doubtless  very  edifying  but  not  very  pedagogic,  and  the] 
children  appear  to  be  sacrificed  too  much  to  the  moral  advanced 
ment  of  their  mistresses.  We  cannot,  however,  but  pay  tribute] 
to  their  devotedness  and  self-abnegation.  They  are  also,  as  far  as 
it  is  possible  to  judge  by  the  very  rare  passages  that  refer  to  them 
in  the  voluminous  writings  of  Port-Royal,  imbued  with  an  admir- 
able sense  of  their  responsibility.  "  She  was  so  humble,"  says  the 
Necrologe  of  D.  Kivet,  speaking  of  the  sister  Marie  de  Sainte- 

1  Dufosse  admits  it  implicitly :  ' '  Although  the  order  which  obliged  the 
nuns  of  Port-Royal  to  dismiss  their  boarders  (1669)  caused  them  much 
distress  on  account  of  the  young  girls  who  were  so  unjustly  deprived  of  a 
pious  education,  it  was,  nevertheless,  easy  to  console  themselves  on  their 
own  account  because  of  the  relief  that  they  received  from  it,  and  the  in- 
comparably greater  peace  that  this  release  procured  for  them."  (M6m.  pou 
scrvir  d  rhistoire  de  P.-Rt  p.  177.) 


SO  Port-Royal  Education. 

Aldegonde  des  Pommares,  deputy  mistress,  "that  she  took  upon 
herself  almost  all  the  faults  that  the  children  committed,  always 
thinking  that  they  would  not  have  happened  except  for  her  want 
of  discretion  or  through  having  spoken  to  them  roughly."  (Page  5.) 
Similar  testimony  is  borne  to  the, sister  Anne-Eug6nie  by  Besogne 
in  an  interesting  page  that  we  have  extracted. 

The  Constitutions  of  the  monastery  of  Port-Eoyal  and  the 
Regulations  for  the  children,  by  Jacqueline  Pascal,  the  only 
documents  that  we  possess,  bring  before  us  a  very  monastic 
education. 

First,  the  parents  must  renounce  their  authority  over  their 
children  and  "  offer  them  to  God,  unconcerned  whether  they  are 
to  be  nuns  or  in  society,  according  as  it  shall  please  God  to 
ordain."  Vocations  will  not  be  forced,  but,  as  Jacqueline  Pascal 
recommends,  "  one  may  make  use  of  the  opportunity  to  say  some- 
thing about  the  happiness  of  a  good  nun  ....  to  show  that  the 
religious  life  is  not  a  burden,  but  one  of  the  best  gifts  of  God." 
Thus  the  greater  number  of  the  young  women  renounce  the 
worldly  life.  Everything  contributes  to  this.  Although  the 
Constitutions  contain  this  article :  "  The  girls  may  be  kept  until 
the  age  of  sixteen  years  although  they  do  not  wish  to  be  nuns," 
the  Mother  Angelique  gave  notice  to  Mine,  de  Chaze  that  her 
daughter,  who  was  about  fifteen,  "  did  not  wish  to  be  a  nun,  and 
that  it  was  necessary  to  remove  her."  (Leclerc,  Vies  interessantes 
et  edifiantes  des  religieuses  de  Port-Royal,  t.  iii.  p.  28.) 

We  may  conjecture  how  marriage  was  spoken  of  there.  Saint- 
Cyran,  in  one  of  his  Lettres  chretiennes  et  spirituelles  (they  figure 
in  the  list  of  reading  books  drawn  up  by  Jacqueline  Pascal), 
writes:  "If  there  were  100,000  souls  that  I  loved  like  yours, 
I  should  always  wish,  in  imitation  of  Saint  Paul,  never  to  see 
them  involved  (in  matrimony),  and  would  do  my  utmost  to 
prevent  them  entering  it."  (t.  i.  p.  170.)  His  successor,  the 
abbe  Singlin,  continues  this  teaching.  We  see  him  at  work  in 
the  Vies  interessantes  by  Leclerc.  The  sister  Elizabeth  de  Sainte- 
Agnes  de  Feron  entered  Port-Royal  at  the  age  of  seven  years. 
When  her  mother  thought  of  marrying  her  "  Singlin  strongly 
represented  to  her  all  that  she  had  to  fear  in  an  engagement 
of  this  kind.  She  had  always  had  a  great  distaste  and  a  terrible 


Introduction.  5 1 


dread  of  marriage."  (t.  ii.  p.  388.)  In  conformity  with  these 
ideas,  the  Mother  Agnes  Arnauld  wrote,  in  1634,  to  her  nephew 
Lemaitre  to  dissuade  him  from  his  project  of  marriage :  "  My 
dear  nephew,  this  will  be  the  last  time  that  I  shall  use  this  title. 
.  .  .  You  will  say  that  I  blaspheme  this  venerable  sacrament  to 
which  you  are  so  devoted,  but  do  not  trouble  yourself  about  my 
conscience,  which  knows  how  to  separate  the  sacred  from  the 
profane,  the  precious  from  the  abject"1 

We  know  with  what  practical  good  sense  Mine,  de  Maintenon 
counteracted  this  false  delicacy,  and  exclaimed  one  day  :  "  This  is 
what  brings  ridicule  on  conventual  education  ! " 

The  boarders  wore  the  white  habit  and  the  veil  of  the  novices. 
It  is  not  given  to  those  who  at  first  show  some  dislike  to  it. 

How  was  that  long  day  filled  which  began  at  four  or  half-past 
four  o'clock  for  the  elder  and  at  five  for  the  younger  children  ? 

With  regard  to  studies,  we  only  see  reading  and  writing 
mentioned,  and  on  festivals  one  hour's  arithmetic. 

The  only  reading  books  mentioned  refer  to  piety :  The  Imitation 
of  Christ,  Fr.  Luis  de  Granada,  la  Philothe'e,  St.  John  Climacus, 
The  Tradition  of  the  Church,  The  Letters  of  M.  de  Saint-Cyran, 
The  Familiar  Theology,  The  Christian  Maxims,  contained  in  the 
Book  of  Hours ;  The  Letter  of  a  Carthusian  Father,  lately  trans- 
lated; The  Meditations  of  St.  Theresa  on  the  Pater-noster,  &c. 
The  morning  reading  is  taken  from  the  service  for  the  day  or 
from  The  Life  of  the  Saints,  and  is  to  serve  for  the  subject 
of  private  conversation  during  the  day.  No  other  books  are  left 
with  the  children  than  their  Hours,  Familiar  Theology,  The 

1  This  is  the  language  of  the  pr&ieuse  Armande  : — 

"  Cannot  you  conceive  what,  as  soon  as  it  is  heard, 
Such  a  word  offers  to  the  mind  that  is  repulsive  ? 
By  what  a  strange  image  one  is  smitten  ? 
To  what  an  offensive  object  it  leads  the  thought  ? 
Do  you  not  shudder  at  it  ?  and  can  you,  sister, 
Persuade  yourself  to  accept  all  the  consequences  of  this  word  ? " 

To  which  the  charming  Henriette  answers  so  sensibly : — 
ft  The  consequences  of  this  word,  when  I  consider  them, 
Show  me  a  husband,  children,  and  a  home, 
And  I  see  nothing  in  all  that,  if  I  can  reason  on  it, 
To  offend  the  mind  or  make  one  shudder." 

Les  Femmes  savantes,  acte  i.  sc.  1.) 


52  Port-Royal  Education. 

[Words  of  Our  Lord,  The  Imitation  of  Christ,  and  a  Latin  and 
(French  Psalter. 

I  The  regulation  recommends  to  "  exercise  the  memory  of  the 
children  very  much "  in  order  to  open  their  mind,  to  occupy 
them  and  prevent  them  thinking  evil."  But  further  on  we  see 
that  they  have  to  learn  by  heart  "  The  Familiar  Theology,  the 
Service  of  the  Mass,  The  Tract  on  Confirmation,  then  all  the 
hymns  in  French  in  the  Hours,  then  all  the  Latin  hymns  in 
the  breviary ;  and  when  they  have  come  into  the  monastery 
young,  there  are  many  who  learn  the  whole  Psalter.  They  have 
not  much  difficulty,  provided  that  they  are  exhorted  and  forced  a 
little."  We  might  suspect  it. 

As  to  writing,  "  they  write  their  copy  or  they  transcribe  some- 
thing when  they  are  very  good  and  are  permitted  to  do  so." 

We  are  very  glad  to  learn  from  an  enemy  that  the  French 
language  was  taught  them  formally.  "There  was  always,"  says 
Father  Rapin,  "a  certain  spirit  of  politeness  in  these  illustrious 
penitents,  who  could  not  belong  to  a  party  which  had  learnt 
to  write  and  speak  well  to  its  contemporaries  without  feeling 
the  effect  of  this  spirit.  .  .  .  Everything  there  was  polished, 
even  the  little  boarders  whom  they  took  the  trouble  to  rear  in 
purity  of  language  as  much  as  in  virtue,  and  it  was  in  conversing 
with  them  that  Doctor  Arnauld  found  so  much  pleasure  in  notic- 
ing that  great  number  of  new  expressions  that  he  had  the  art  to 
utilize  in  his  works,  and  of  which  he  made  a  special  study." 
(Memoires,  t.  ii.  p.  276.) 

Let  us  add  needlework,  housekeeping,  singing  by  notes,  and  we 
shall  have  gathered  all  we  are  able  to  learn  of  the  programme  of 
studies.  There  is  no  trace  of  the  teaching  of  history  or  the 
natural  sciences. 

With  regard  to  outside  news,  "  they  receive  the  announcement 
of  the  taking  the  veil  by  some  sisters  or  some  note  requesting 
their  prayers  for  some  person  or  some  pious  undertaking." 

We  may  at  least  remark  in  this  teaching,  which  appears  to  us  so 
inadequate,  some  good  scholastic  usages.  "At  the  end  of  a  lesson, 
three  or  four  children  are  set  to  repeat  what  was  told  them  the  day 
before.  They  are  not  questioned  in  turn,  in  order  to  keep  them 
ou  the  alert ;  sometimes  one,  sometimes  another  is  Addressed,  .  ,  • 


Introduction.  53 


As  to  the  younger  children,  they  must  not  be  left  idle,  but  their 
time  must  be  divided,  making  them  read  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
play  for  another  quarter,  and  then  work  for  another  short  time. 
These  changes  amuse  them,  and  prevent  them  forming  the  bad 
habit  to  which  children  are  very  prone,  of  holding  their  book  and 
playing  with  it  or  with  their  work,  sitting  sideways  and  constantly 
turning  their  heads." 

By  as  much  as  Jacqueline  Pascal  is  distressingly  laconic,  when 
it  is  a  question  of  the  intellectual  development  of  the  pupils,  by 
so  much  does  she  please  herself  in  setting  out  in  detail  the 
monastic  side  of  their  education. 

We  are  rather  shocked  by  the  system  of  repression  to  which  the 
girls  are  subjected.  On  every  page  of  the  Regulations  one  word 
constantly  reappears,  cold  and  pitiless,  namely,  silence  :l  perfect 
silence  while  rising  and  dressing, — strict  silence  till  the  Preciosa  of 
prime, — very  strict  silence  while  at  work  after  breakfast  at  half- 
past  seven, — silence  during  the  household  work, — increased  silence 
during  the  writing  lesson, — silence  during  the  two  hours'  duration 
of  the  service  and  masses  in  the  monastery,  even  when  they  do  not 
attend  it, — silence  in  the  refectory, — complete  silence  during  work 
till  vespers, — silence  after  the  evening  angelus,  even  in  summer, 
when  they  are  walking  in  the  garden, — great  silence  while  un- 
dressing and  going  to  bed  at  eight  o'clock. 

Will  the  poor  little  mutes  at  least  regain  a  little  liberty,  and 
give  themselves  up  to  the  joy  of  their  age  "  in  play- time,  when  it 
seems  they  have  a  right  to  say  many  thing  to  amuse  and  recreate 
themselves M 1  Not  by  any  means,  except  the  very  young  ones, 
who  are  left  to  play.  As  to  the  rest,  the  mistresses  take  care 
to  speak  to  and  converse  with  them,  in  order  to  help  them  to  say 
reasonable  things  which  will  enlarge  their  minds. 


i 


Evidently  these  absolute  precepts  must  have  been  very  much  modified  in 
practice.  The  wise  caution  that  precedes  the  Regulations  for  children  (see  p. 
226)  proves  this.  "  It  would  not  always  be  easy  nor  even  useful  to  put  it  in 
practice  with  this  severity,  for  it  may  be  that  all  children  are  not  capable  of 
such  strict  silence  and  so  strained  a  life  without  being  depressed  and  wearied, 
which  must  be  avoided  above  all  things."  The  Mother  Agnes  writes,  about 
1660,  to  Mme  de  Foix,  coadjutrix,  of  Saintes :  "  Our  boarders  are  not  con- 
strained to  keep  silence,  but  they  are  carefully  watched,  in  order  that  they 
may  not  converse  about  trifles." 


54  Port-Royal  Education. 

Besides,  they  are  forbidden  to  speak  of  their  confessions,  of 
the  singing  of  the  sisters,  of  the  penances  of  the  refectory,  of 
their  dreams,  and  of  the  parlour.  They  are  not  allowed  to 
speak  in  an  undertone,  on  pain  of  repeating  aloud  what  they 
have  said. 

|  Play-time,  however,  is  almost  always  taken  up  with  work. 
"Except  the  very  little  ones,  who  always  play,  all  work  without 
losing  their  time,  and  they  have  made  it  such  a  habit  that  nothing 
wearies  them  so  much  as  the  recreations  on  festivals. " J  What  an 
admission ! 

Two  extracts  (see  pp.  245  and  247)  permit  us  to  penetrate  into 
Port-Eoyal  at  this  period  of  the  day.  One  shows  us  the  Sister 
Eugenie  taxing  her  ingenuity  to  amuse  the  children  who  cannot 
play  without  her.  The  other,  more  curious,  sketches  a  lively 
scene  in  which  the  children,  taking  part  in  the  disputes  of  the  day, 
amuse  themselves  by  bringing  Escobar  to  trial ! 

Keligious  exercises  occupy  a  place  very  disproportionate  to  the 
age  of  the  children,  if  the  aim  were  not  to  train  them  all  for 
the  religious  life.2  Prayer  is  not  only  the  beginning  and  end 
of  every  lesson,  it  recurs  every  hour;  when  the  bell  rings  for 
a  service  in  the  choir  work  is  interrupted  to  repeat  a  prayer. 
The  scholars  hear  mass  every  day  "on  their  knees;  it  has  been 
found  that  this  posture  is  not  so  uneasy  when  one  has  become  used 
to  it  early."  They  go  to  terce  and  vespers  on  Sundays  and 
Thursdays,  to  the  high  festivals,  to  the  feast-days  of  saints, 

1  There  is  a  question  of  recreations  in  the  examination  of  the  Sister  Jeanne 
de  Sainte-Domitille.     "  The  little  girls,  the  priest  tells  her,  laughing,  have 
answered  :     '  Alas  !  recreation,  we  did  not  waste  our  time  over  that,  we  did 
nothing  but  weep  for  our  sins.'    'This  last  answer/  replied  the  sister,  smiling, 
*  conies  as  little  from  the  children  as  the  preceding.     In  the  matter  of  recrea- 
tion they  passed  two  hours  a  day  in  it  very  gaily,  and  have  always  been  very 
pleased  to  go  into  that  house,  which  has  plainly  appeared  by  the  sorrow  they 
showed  in  leaving  us.'  "  (Histoire  des persecutions  des  religieuses,  p.  171.) 

2  Leclerc  says  of  Mdlle.  du  Fargis,  a  boarder  from  the  age  of  seven  years  : 
"The  Mother  Angelique  took  special  care  in  training  her  in  virtue,  and  in 
inspiring  her  with  contempt  of  the  world  and  of  herself.     She  soon  had  the 
consolation  of  seeing  that  her  pains  and  instructions  produced  excellent 
results  in  this  young  pupil.     In  fact,  when  she  was  of  an  age  to  choose 
her  state  of  life,  she  formed  the  resolution  to  be  a  nun.     "  Her  father  cast 
himself  at  her  knees.     The  constancy  of  the  young  novice  appeared  even  too- 
heroic  to  the  Mother  Angelique,  who  said  to  her,  *  You  must  humble  your- 
self ;  you  are  too  strong.'  " 


Introduction.  5  5 


doctors,  and  others,  if  they  ask  and  deserve  this  favour.  At 
eleven  o'clock  scrutiny  of  conscience.  The  elder  girls  may  repeat 
their  sexts.  After  recreation  they  sing  the  Veni  Creator  in  pre- 
paration for  religious  instruction ;  then  they  are  allowed  the  favour 
of  telling  aloud  one  of  their  faults,  "they  are  accustomed  to  do 
so  readily."1  At  four  o'clock  the  elder  girls  may  obtain  the  favour 
of  going  to  vespers.  At  last  the  evening  recreation  ends  with 
complines,  which  they  may  recite  in  summer  while  walking  in  the 
garden. 

We  cannot  approve  of  this  excess  of  religious  practices  any 
more  than  of  that  spirit  of  mortification  which  presents  work 
solely  as  a  penance,  which  exempts  from  the  collation  at  the  age  of 
fourteen,  and  exhorts  the  children  "  to  take  sufficient  nourishment 
as  not  to  become  feeble."  2  At  that  age  the  body  needs  to  grow 
and  be  strengthened.  How  much  more  sensible  and  humane  is 
Mme.  de  Maintenon  when,  in  describing  a  reasonable  person,  she 
shows  him  "  eating  with  a  good  appetite,  not  like  a  glutton  with 
his  head  in  his  plate,  but  gracefully  and  cleanly,  and,  since  it  has 
pleased  God  that  we  should  find  pleasure  in  eating,  he  takes 
it  unaffectedly,  and  without  any  scruple." 

The  Mother  Angelique  solemnly  protests  before  God,  in  a  fine 
letter  written  to  the  queen  on  her  death-bed  in  1661,  that  they 
were  not  at  all  occupied  in  the  monastery  with  the  theological 
controversies  raised  by  Saint- Cyran  and  Arnauld.  Father  Eapin 
replies  by  a  dilemma  which  is  not  wanting  in  force.  "If  these 
questions  are  essential  to  faith,  why  deprive  this  house  of  know- 
ledge necessary  to  salvation?  If  they  are  not  so,  but  are  im- 

1  Mme  de  Maintenon  absolutely  forbids  this  practice  to  the  Ladies  of  Saiut- 
Cyr :     "  Cultivate  carefully  in  your  young  ladies  the  sentiments  of  honour 
....  and  do  not  exact  from  them  practices  that  might  weaken  that  glory 
and  make  them  bold  ;    for  example,  making  them  acknowledge  publicly 
humiliating  faults,  thinking  that  this  would  be  recalling  the  custom  of 
public  confession,    which  the  Church  has  thought  it  right  to  suppress." 
(Entretien,  1703.)    Mine,  de  Maintenon  is  aiming  here  at  the  jansenists,  who 
had  begun  to  revive  this  ancient  custom. 

2  Besogne,  praising  the  love  of  the  Mother  Angelique  for  mortification, 
relates  that  the  most  devout  of  the  young  girls  prided  themselves  on  emula- 
tion, and  that  it  very  nearly  cost  three  of  them  very  dear  who  "  took  it  into 
their  heads,  in  order  to  mortify  themselves  in  imitation  of  the  nuns,  to 
gather  weeds  in  the  garden,  pound  them  up,  and  swallow  the  juice."  (t  i 
p.  42.) 


56  Port-Royal  Education. 

material,  why  make  so  much  clamour  about  them  everywhere? 
Why  resist  the  Pope  and  trouble  the  Church  for  affairs  of  so 
little  importance,  that  they  may  be  ignored  without  any  bad 
consequences'?  Is  it  likely  that  the  heads  of  this  party  are  so 
zealous  in  teaching  their  maxims  to  the  whole  kingdom,  and 
that  Port-Royal  alone,  where  they  reside,  is  left  in  ignorance 
of  the  mysteries  that  are  taught  there  V9  (Memoires,  vol.  iii. 
p.  163.) 

Two  anecdotes  related  by  Mme.  de  Main  tenon  at'Saint-Cyr 
would  tend  to  confirm  the  reasoning  of  the  Jesuit  father :  "When 
the  king  forbade  boarders  to  be  placed  at  Port-Eoyal  Mme.  la 
comtesse  de  ***  withdrew  her  daughter,  who  was  only  twelve 
year  old ;  she  brought  her  to  court,  where  she  began  to  disparage 
all  that  M.  de  Perefixe  had  done  in  his  visit  to  Port-Royal.  She 
was  inexhaustible,  and  I  could  not  understand  how  a  child  could 
speak  with  such  boldness.  During  this  very  visit  of  the  arch- 
bishop he  made  a  speech  to  try  and  gain  them  over.  After  a  rather 
long  speech  he  asked  a  little  boarder  of  nine  or  ten  years  old, 
who  had  been  listening  attentively,  if  she  was  beginning  to  be 
convinced  of  the  truth  of  what  he  said.  She  answered  him  with 
an  astonishing  boldness,  '  I  admire  the  depth  of  the  judgments  of 
God  to  have  given  us  a  prelate  as  ignorant  as  you  are.'  And  all 
the  nuns  applauded  this  answer.  This  is  the  submission  and 
humility  that  their  directors  inspire  in  them."  (Lettres  historiques 
et  edifiantes,  vol.  ii.  p.  227.)  No  doubt  the  testimony  of  an 
impassioned  enemy,  and  one  very  much  inclined  to  raillery,  must 
be  a  little  distrusted.  But  putting  together  these  facts  and  the 
recreation  scene  where  the  boarders  amused  themselves  by 
bringing  Escobar  to  trial,  we  conclude  that  they  were  not  so 
entirely  strangers  to  the  religious  disputes  of  the  time.  The 
contrary  would  be  altogether  unlikely. 

But  what  an  odious  imputation,  justly  stigmatized  by  Arnauld 
(la  Morale  pratique  des  jesuites,  t.  viii.  p.  209),  theological  hatred 
has  cast  on  these  nuns,  "as  pure  as  angels,"  said  archbishop 
Perefixe,  by  reproaching  them  with  being  "  as  proud  as  demons  ! " 
One  of  the  thousand  pamphlets  to  which  the  quarrel  between  the 
Jesuits  and  jansenists  gave  rise,  le  Pays  de  Janstnie,  accuses  them 
of  giving  their  pupils  lessons  in  immodesty,  in  consequence  of  the 


Introduction.  57 


doctrine  of  Jansenius  and  Saint-Cyran  on  grace.1  "  Do  not  think, 
my  daughters,"  he  impudently  makes  them  say,  "that  the  grace 
of  God  is  always  with  us.  Alas,  no  !  There  are  wretched  times 
when  we  are  indeed  compelled  to  sin.  What  should  we  do  if 
God  withdraws  Himself?  That  often  happens,  however.  Are 
we  not  indeed  unfortunate?  Chastity  is  commanded  to  us,  and 
sometimes  we  are  deprived  of  the  strength  necessary  to  preserve 
it.  Kemember  that,  my  daughters,  your  salvation  is  at  stake 
if  you  ignore  it,  and  you  may  have  need  of  it  at  some  time. 
There  are  husbands  who  would  not  be  so  cruel  to  their  wives 
if  they  had  studied  theology,  for  they  would  know  that  grace 
is  often  denied  us,  and  that  in  that  case  they  should  rather 
pity  our  weaknesses  than  be  angry  for  the  faults  into  which 
we  fall  by  the  absence  of  the  succour  that  God  refuses  to  us, 
either  to  punish  our  infidelities  or  to  teach  us  by  a  necessary 
lapse  that  we  can  do  nothing  without  Him.  It  is  thus,"  continues 
the  pamphleteer,  "  that  they  bring  up  the  young  to  that  patience 
that  results  in  the  greatest  ignominy  of  the  sex,  when  solicitations 
are  warm  and  opportunities  present.  For  although  they  do 
not  intend  to  give  lessons  in  immodesty  to  their  young  scholars, 
the  doctrine  nevertheless  leads  to  it."  You  admit  it,  then, 
venomous  logician,  all  this  argument  carried  to  excess  is  nothing 
but  an  insult  and  a  calumny.  Attack  opinions,  but  do  not 
outrage  persons.  Such  a  proceeding,  always  culpable,  is  especially 
so  here  towards  pious  women  whose  morality  no  one  ever  thought 
of  throwing  suspicion  on.  It  is  an  unqualified  infamy. 

Setting  aside  the  exaggerated  anxiety,  the  suspicious  watchful- 
ness, the  constant  nervousness  that  the  nuns  of  Port-Royal,  under 
the  inspiration  of  Saint-Cyran,  bring  to  the  accomplishment  of 
their  task,  we  must  acknowledge  the  accuracy  of  their  principles 
with  respect  to  moral  education. 

To  unite  a  strength  which  restrains  children  without  repelling 
them  to  a  gentleness  that  wins  them  without  enervating  them ; 
vigilance  and  patience ;  no  partiality  for  the  more  agreeable  and 
pretty  children;  no  familiarity;  great  evenness  of  temper,  for 


1  Relation  du  pays  de  Jansenie,  by  the  Capuchin  Zacharie,  under  the 
name  of  Louis  Fontaine  (1658). 


5  8  Port- Royal  Education. 

too  much  laxity  soon  leads  to  too  much  severity,  and  it  is  much 
more  painful  for  children  to  suffer  these  variations  than  to  be 
always  kept  to  their  duty ;  seldom  to  admonish  for  slight  faults, 
even  to  pretend  not  to  perceive  them;  to  reprimand  without 
bad  temper  or  offensive  terms;  "they  must  be  convinced  that 
they  are  only  reprimanded  for  their  good";  to  be  sparing  of 
words  in  reprimanding;1  to  chastise  even  without  speaking,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  children  telling  untruths  or  seeking  excuses ; 
to  work  upon  their  character  with  discretion  in  private  con- 
versations; to  win  their  entire  confidence,  and  to  be  on  guard 
against  their  cunning ;  to  infuse  this  idea  into  them,  namely,  that 
their  progress  in  what  is  good  will  be  measured,  not  by 
extraordinary  actions,  but  by  the  accomplishment  of  their  every- 
day duties,  "by  the  fidelity  they  shall  bring  into  the  smallest 
regulations  of  the  schoolroom,  by  the  support  they  shall  give 
their  sisters,  by  the  charity  with  which  they  shall  serve  them 
in  their  needs,  and  by  the  care  they  shall  take  to  mortify  their 
faults."  Here,  in  few  words,  and  without  pretension,  is  an 
excellent  line  of  conduct. 

On  the  whole  the  girls'  schools  of  Port-Eoyal  affect  the  history 
of  pedagogy  less  than  the  boys'  schools.  These  mark  an  epoch  of 
/  notable  reforms  and  real  progress.  If  we  often  disagree  with 
their  venerable  masters,  if  we  have  neither  the  same  starting- 
point  nor  the  same  goal,  if  pedagogy  has  cast  off  their  theological 
ideas,  what  advantage  may  we  not  still  draw  from  a  close  inter- 
course with  them.  What  legitimate  lessons  they  may  continue 
to  give  us  on  the  proper  aim  of  studies,  on  the  art  of  managing 
children  and  training  their  minds  and  hearts.  Their  works, 
one  of  the  glories  of  French  pedagogy,  still  deserve  to  be  read  and 
pondered.  Their  example  especially  ought  to  continue  living. 
A  more  absolute  and  disinterested  devotedness  to  the  great  work 
of  education  has  never  been  seen,  nor  a  more  watchful  conscience, 
a  more  sincere  and  active  love  of  childhood,  nor  a  keener  desire 
to  render  study  easy  and  attractive. 

How  did  these  humble  schools  raise  the   implacable   hatred 


(M; 


1  " Nothing  weakens  a  reprimand  more   than  a  great  many  words." 
[me.  de  Maintenon,  letter  to  a  mistress,  1692.) 


Introduction.  59 


of  the  Jesuits,  a  hatred  that  was  not  extinguished,  even  after  the 
dispersion  of  the  scholars  and  the  exile  or  imprisonment  of 
the  masters,  until  the  day  that  the  very  buildings  were  razed 
and  destroyed  and  the  tombs  profaned  I1  What  do  I  sayl  This 
hatred  is  not  yet  extinct,  it  is  again  revived  under  our  eyes,  and 
at  the  present  time  dreams  of  annihilating  the  works,  and  even 
the  very  names,  of  our  pious  solitaries  and  their  friends.2 

If  the  Jesuits  feared  for  a  moment  to  see  the  education  of 
youth   slip    out   of    their   hands,   and   their   colleges   lose   their 
prosperity,3  as  Kacine  and  several  writers  of  Port-Royal  assert, 
they  must  have  been  promptly  reassured ;  for  the  Pctites  Ecoles  • 
could  only  be  a  brilliant  and  short-lived  institution,  the  individual  I  \ 
work    of    a    few   eminent    masters,    which    was    ill-adapted   for' 
imitation,   and  which,  by  its  narrow  limits,  confined  to  a  very 
small  number  of  select  pupils,  could  not  respond  to  the  needs 
of  public  instruction,  and  consequently  had  no  future  prospects. 

The  cause  of   the  quarrel  must  evidently  be  sought  less  in  . 
the  scholastic  success  of  the  masters  of  Port-Royal  than  in  their  I 
growing  favour   with   the   public   as   spiritual  directors  and  as( 
writers.      Father   Canaye   explains   it   candidly  in   that   curious 
conversation  with  the  Marquis  d*  Hocquincourt,  related  by  Saint- 
Evremond  who  was   present :    "It   was   not  their   diversity   of 

1  A  letter  of  Feb.  2,  1712,  gives  frightful  details  ;  the  writer  had  them 
from  an  eye-witness.     The  labourers  who  disinterred  the  bodies,  and  broke 
them  when  they  could  not  lift  them  entire,  "drank,  laughed,  sang,  and 
derided  those  persons  whom  they  found  thus  in  the  flesh.     But  the  most 
horrible  thing  was  that  there  were  ten  dogs  in  the  church  devouring  the 
flesh  which  still  remained  on  those  limbs  which  were  separated  from  the 
bodies,  and  no  one  thought  of  driving  them  away."  (LECLERC,  Vies  inte'ressantes, 
t.  iv.  p.  59.) 

2  The  Catalogue  mensuel  de  I'&uvre  pontificale  des  vieuxpapiers  (the  office 
is  at  Langres,  Haute-Marne),  in  its  number  for  April  and  May  1885,  points 
out  to  the  pious  fury  of  devout  souls  33  works  to  be  destroyed.     The  names 
of  Arnauld,  Nicole,  Pascal,  Saci,  Saint-Cyran,  Duguet,  &c.,  figure  in  it.     A 
note,  written  in  a  jovial  style,  explains  that  the  jansenists  who  did  so  much 
evil  in  former  times  snore  peacefully  on  the  shelves  of  libraries,  and  that  now 
is  a  very  favourable  moment  for  laying  hands  on  them  and  thrusting  them 
all  at  once  into  the  sack.     Comment  seems  to  me  needless. 

3  The  testimony  of  Bacon  in  favour  of  their  talent  as  educators  is  often 
quoted.     It  is  proper  to  set  in  the  balance  the  very  superior  authority,  in 
my  opinion,  of  Leibnitz:  "  I  am  far  from  thinking  like  Bacon,"  he  writes, 
11  who,  when  it  is  a  question  of  a  better  education,  is  content  to  refer  to  the 
schools  of  the  Jesuits."  ((Euvres,  t.  vi.  p.  65  ) 


60  Port-Royal  Education. 


opinions  upon  grace  nor  the  five  propositions  which  had  set 
them  at  loggerheads.  The  ambition  of  governing  men's  con- 
sciences did  it  all.  The  jansenists  found  us  in  possession  of 
the  government,  and  they  wished  to  take  it  from  us.  .  .  ." 
(CEuvres  de  Saint-Evremond,  t.  ii.  p.  156.) 

Victors  along  all  the  line,  both  as  writers  and  directors  of 
conscience,  the  jansenists  had  necessarily  to  succumb  before  the 
double  opposition  of  the  Church  and  the  State. 

Captivated  by  perfection  and  holiness,  conceiving  a  very  high 
idea  of  religion  and  morality,  pushing  the  requirements  of  the 
Christian  life,  the  responsibility  of  the  priesthood,  and  the  terrible 
grandeur  of  God  to  the  extreme,  they  had  bewailed  the  disorders 
of  the  clergy,  of  the  Court  of  Eome,1  and  the  monastic  orders, 
and,  like  Vincent  de  Paul,  Frangois  de  Sales,  de  Be'rulle,  de 
Ranee,  and  Bourdoise,  had  felt  deeply  the  need  of  a  complete 
reform.  With  the  generous  but  somewhat  chimerical  idea  of 
restoring  Christianity  to  its  primitive  purity,  they  expressed 
themselves  in  sharp  and  energetic  terms  on  the  corruption  of 
morals  and  discipline  in  the  Church.  Saint-Cyran  sorrowfully 
said  that  for  five  or  six  hundred  years  God  had  been  destroying 
His  Church.2  He  repeated  the  melancholy  saying  of  Fra^ois 
de  Sales :  "  There  is  scarcely  one  competent  confessor  in  ten 
thousand ! "  Jansenius,  his  companion  in  studies,  wrote  to  him 
on  April  5,  1621  :  "After  the  heretics,  no  people  in  the  world 

1  The  satirical  Gui  Patin  is  not  the  only  person  who  complains  of  the 
abuse  of  nepotism  at  the  Court  of  Rome,  under  the  pontificate  of 
Innocent  X.  (1644-1655):  "The  Signora  Olympia,  sister-in-law  of  the 
pope,  who  governs  him  body  and  soul,  also  governs  the  papacy.  It  is 
said  that  she  sells  everything,  seizes  and  receives  everything  .  .  .  which 
has  drawn  a  joke  from  Pasquin,  'Olympia,  olim  pia,  nunc  harpia.'" 
(Lettres,  t.  i.  p.  363.)  The  Venetian  ambassador,  Contarini,  writes 
officially:  "Donna  Olympia  sells,  taxes,  lets,  gets  presents  made  to  her 
for  all  Government  transactions,  for  pardons  and  justice ;  she  is  surrounded 
by  a  band  of  agents  and  extortioners."  (Quoted  by  de  Chantelauze,  Le 
cardinal  de  Retz  et  I'a/aire  du  chapeau,  t.  i.  p.  296.)  Pamphlets  were 
affixed  to  the  church  doors:  "Olympia  primus,  pontifex  maximus."  A 
medal  represented  her  with  the  tiara  on  her  head  and  St.  Peter's  keys  in 
her  hand  ;  Innocent  X.  in  woman's  dress  holding  a  distaff  and  spindle. 

a  Vincent  de  Paul  in  his  deposition  remembered  only  the  second  half 
of  the  phrase  ;  but  the  Mother  Angelique  had  noted  down  the  first  in 
writing.  (See  the  letter  of  Lemaitre  in  the  Memoires  pour  servir  d  I'histoire 
de  Port-Royal,  t.  ii.  p.  207.) 


Introduction .  6 1 


have  more  corrupted  theology  than  those  brawlers  of  the  school 
that  you  know.  If  it  had  to  be  corrected  in  the  ancient  style, 
which  is  that  of  truth,  the  theology  of  this  time  would  have 
no  appearance  of  theology  for  the  greater  number  of  persons." 

Arnauld,  in  his  fine  book,  De  la  frequents  communion,  in  1643, 
protested  with  unparalleled  energy  against  the  moral  and  religious 
condition  of  his  contemporaries  :  "  Also  it  is  a  horrible  thing  that 
never  have  so  many  confessions  and  communions  been  seen,  and 
never  more  disorder  and  corruption  .  .  .  that  there  was  never 
more  impurity  in  marriages  .  .  .  more  profligacy  among  the 
young  .  .  .  more  excess  and  debauchery  among  the  common 
people.  Who  does  not  know  that  for  twenty  years  fornication 
has  passed  among  men  of  the  world  as  a  slight  fault;  adultery, 
one  of  the  greatest  of  all  crimes,  for  a  piece  of  good  fortune  ; 
cheating  and  treachery  for  court  virtues;  impiety  and  free- 
thinking  for  strength  of  mind  .  ,  .  fraud  and  lying  for  the 
knowledge  of  sale  and  trading;  the  rage  for  constant  gaming 
as  a  genteel  occupation  for  women  .  .  .  the  disguised  simony 
and  the  profanation  of  church  property  as  a  legitimate  accommo- 
dation which  facilitates  the  interchange  of  benefices?  ...  I 
say  nothing  of  more  abominable  crimes  that  our  fathers  were 
ignorant  of,  and  which  have  broken  out  to  such  an  extent  in  this 
unfortunate  age,  that  one  cannot  think  of  them  without  being 
seized  with  horror."  (3e  par  tie,  ch.  xvi.) 

And  the  young  and  ardent  doctor  (he  was  then  thirty-one)  did 
not  fear  to  trace  back  to  the  proper  person  the  responsibility  for 
all  these  disorders :  "  This  is  what  we  might  with  truth  call 
the  greatest  misfortune  that  could  happen  to  the  Church,  if  we 
did  not  add  that  there  is  a  still  greater,  namely,  that  persons 
are  found  who  make  profession  of  piety,  who  flatter  the  sinners  in 
the  desires  of  their  soul  .  .  .  who  seem  to  work  for  nothing  else 
than  to  foster  crimes  by  a  false  mildness,  instead  of  arresting  them 
by  a  just  severity.  .  .  They  are  persons  who  imagine  that  they 
have  changed  the  face  of  a  whole  town,  and  have  made  it  become 
quite  Christian  without  any  other  change  than  that  those  who 
only  communicated  once  a  year  now  communicate  once  a  month, 
and  sometimes  oftener.  .  .  They  admit  that  morals  are  not  less 
corrupt  than  before  .  ,  ,  yet,  nevertheless,  they  will  maintain  that 


62  Port-Royal  Education. 


men  are  in  a  better  condition  than  they  were,  because  they  tell  a 
priest  every  week  what  they  told  only  every  month,  and  add 
every  week  two  sacrileges  to  their  other  crimes.  .  ."  The  mild 
and  prudent  Nicole  declares  that  he  fears  some  extraordinary  effect 
of  God's  anger  "  at  a  time  when  the  whole  Church  is  filled  with 
vicious  and  ignorant  ecclesiastics  and  dissolute  monasteries.*1 
(VisionnaireS)  p.  179.)  This  was  to  bring  on  their  hands  many 
powerful  enemies.  It  was  easy  to  raise  the  hue  and  cry  after  the 
dangerous  innovators,  the  new  reformers,  the  disguised  heretics, 
who  wished,  like  Luther  and  Calvin,  to  ruin  the  Church  under 
the  pretext  of  reforming  it. 

The  State,  that  is  to  say  Louis  XIV.,  maintained,  besides, 
ineradicable  prejudices  against  them.  "  The  gentlemen  of  Port- 
Eoyal — always  these  gentlemen,"  repeated  in  chorus  the  king 
and  Mme.  de  Maintenon.  The  sincerity  of  their  convictions  and 
of  their  apostolate  is  a  sure  guarantee  to  us,  at  least  at  the  period 
with  which  we  are  occupied,  that  they  remained  strangers 
to  political  cabals,  notwithstanding  the  accusations  without  proof 
and  the  perfidious  insinuations  of  their  adversaries.1  It  required, 
in  truth,  all  the  blindness  of  hatred  to  transform  Saint-Cyran, 
Arnauld,  Singlin,  de  Saci,  Nicole,  and  Lancelot  into  conspirators 
and  rioters.  "  Mine,  de  Longueville,"  Father  Rapin  relates,  "  said 
of  Arnauld  that  he  would  never  have  been  able  to  achieve 
his  salvation  if  intrigue  had  been  necessary  to  save  him." 
(MemoireSy  p.  240.)  And  this  is  well  seen  when,  hidden  and 
disguised  in  the  duchess'  house,  he  betrayed  his  incognito  so 
artlessly.2 

The  testimony  of  Cardinal  de  Retz  is  very  favourable  to  them. 
"They  are,"  Besogne  makes  him  say,  "the  poorest  people  in  the 
world  in  the  matter  of  intrigue  and  affairs  of  State ;  they  will 

1  The  zealous  annotator  of  the  Mtmoires  of  Father  Rapin  is  forced  to 
admit  it:    "The  Mdmoires  are  not  very  explicit  on  the  part  that  the 
jansenists  took  in  the  armaments  of  the  Fronde,  and  Port-Royal  wished  to 
deny  it;  the  pamphlets  are  never  silent  about  it."  (t.  i.  p.  252.)     A  high 
authority  truly  ! 

2  Speaking  of  a  new  work,  the  doctor,  who  was  visiting  him,  happened  to 
say,  "  De  Saci  does  not  write  so  well."     "  What  do  you  mean  ?"  replied  the 
patient,  "my  nephew  writes  better  than  I."     In  an  analogous  circumstance, 
the  physician  spoke  of  the  arrest  of  Arnauld,   "Oh  !  it  is  rather  hard  to 
believe  that,"  replied  the  incorrigible  doctor,  "  I  am  M.  Arnauld," 


Introduction.  63 


not  meddle  with  them.  And  far  from  receiving  any  assistance 
from  them,  they  have  disgusted  several  persons  of  my  party  and 
refused  absolution  to  those  who  belonged  to  it."1  (Hist.  t.  v. 
p.  546.) 

But  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  appearances  were  against 
them.  "With  a  facility  more  Christian  than  judicious,"  according 
to  the  just  comment  of  Racine,  they  welcomed  a  number  of  discon- 
tented or  disgraced  courtiers  and  a  number  of  great  ladies  wearied 
of  their  intrigues.  Their  attachment  to  their  archbishop,  the 
Cardinal  de  Retz,  whose  consummate  perversity2  they  did  not 
know  so  well  as  we  do,  and  who  used  them  to  further  the  ends  of 
his  ambition,  compromised  them  completely  in  the  opinion  of 
Louis  XIV.  and  his  ministers.  Their  connection  with  the 
duchesse  de  Longueville,  the  due  de  Luynes,  the  marquis 
de  Sevigne',  Mme.  de  Guenegaut,  the  prince  and  princess  de 
Conti,  &c.,  caused  the  Fronde  to  be  called  the  jansenists'  war. 
Anne  of  Austria,  indoctrinated  by  the  marquis  de  Senecey,  by 
Henri  de  Bourbon  and  the  Jesuits,  declared  "  that  the  king  would 
remember  them  when  he  was  of  age,"  and  he  did  remember  them, 
in  fact.  His  governor,  Villeroi,  represented  them  to  him  as 
people  who  "wanted  neither  pope  nor  king."  (Memoires,  du  P. 
Eapin,  t.  i.  p.  271.)  Hence,  we  can  understand  the  saying  attri- 
buted to  d'Harcourt,  "  A  jansenist  is  very  often  only  a  man  whom 
it  is  wished  to  ruin  at  court." 

M.  Cousin  and  M.  Kenan  have  said  that  in  this  struggle  it 
was  the  Jesuits  who  defended  the  good  cause,  that  of  human 


1  We  see  the  abbe   Singlin  and  the   bishop  of  Alet  exact  from   their 
penitents,  the  prince  de  Conti  and  the  duchesse  de  Longueville,  restitution 
of  considerable  sums  to  the  poor,  to  repair  the  damages  caused  in  the 
provinces  by  the  civil  wars.  (BESOQNE,  Hist.  t.  iii.  pp.  39  and  83.) 

2  His  secretary,  Guy  Joly,  reports  this  cynical  conversation  :  *  *  My  poor 
fellow,  you  lose  your  time  in  preaching  to  me.      I  know  very  well  that  I  am 
only  a  knave.     But,  in  spite  of  you  and  all  the  world,   I  wish  to  be  so, 
because  1  find  more  pleasure  in  it.    I  am  aware  that  there  are  three  or  four  of 
you  who  know  me  and  despise  me  in  your  hearts  ;  but  I  console  myself  with 
the  satisfaction  that  I  experience  in  imposing  on  all  the  rest  by  your  means. 
People  are  so  much  deceived,  and  my  reputation  is  so  well  established,  that  if 
you  wished  to  undeceive  them  you  would  not  be  believed,  which  is  sufficient 
for  me  to  be  contented  and  live  after  my  own  fashion."  (Al&noires.)    The 
admiration  that  Mme.   de  Sevigne  did  not  cease  to  profess  for  Cardinal 
de  Ketz  is  well  known, 


64  Port-Royal  Education. 

liberty.  Mme.  de  S^vigne,  so  attached  to  her  friends  and  her 
brethren  of  Port-Koyal,  separates  from  them,  in  fact,  on  this  point 
of  doctrine.  She  has  just  been  reading  the  Bible  of  Eoyaumont, 
and,  after  having  seen  the  reproaches  of  ingratitude  and  the 
horrible  punishments  with  which  God  afflicted  His  people,  she 
writes:  "As  to  myself,  I  go  much  farther  than  the  Jesuits.  .  .  . 
I  am  persuaded  that  we  have  entire  liberty.  .  ,  .  The  Jesuits 
do  not  say  enough  about  it,  and  the  others  give  occasion  for 
murmuring  against  the  justice  of  God  when  they  take  away  our 
liberty,  or  abridge  it  so  much  that  it  is  no  longer  liberty."  (A 
Mme.  de  Grignan,  August  28,  1676.)  D'Alembert  twits  them 
equally,  and  with  spirit,  on  the  contradiction  between  their  in- 
exorable dogma  and  their  ethics :  "  What  would  be  thought  of 
a  monarch  who  should  say  to  one  of  his  subjects,  'You  have 
shackles  on  your  feet,  and  you  have  no  power  to  take  them  off; 
nevertheless,  I  warn  you  that  if  you  do  not  immediately  walk, 
for  a  long  time  and  quite  straight,  along  the  edge  of  this  precipice 
on  which  you  are,  you  shall  be  condemned  to  everlasting 
torments'?  Such  is  the  God  of  the  jansenists."  (Destruction 
des  Jesuit es,  p.  64.) 

And,  in  spite  of  all,  the  men  of  Port-Eoyal,  vanquished, 
proscribed,  and  annihilated,  make  in  history  quite  another  figure 
than  their  triumphant  vanquishers.  By  a  happy  inconsistency 
with  their  discouraging  system  of  predestination,  they  do  not  the 
less  represent,  in  a  certain  measure,  liberty  of  conscience,  the 
spirit  of  inquiry,  independence  of  thought,  and  the  love  of  justice 
and  truth.  "Their  adversaries  pleaded  the  opposite  cause,  namely, 
undisputed  sway  over  mind  and  heart."  (Yillemain.) 

By  a  new  and  still  more  happy  inconsistency  they  worked  with 

a  more  ardent  zeal  than  anyone  for  the  reform  of  manners.     Their 

moral  grandeur  burst  forth  before  the  eyes  of  their  most  prejudiced 

contemporaries,  and,  far  from  diminishing  with  time,  it  shines 

with  a  purer   light,   in   the   history   of   French   civilization,   in 

proportion  as  the  miserable  incidents  of  the  struggle  in  which 

they  succumbed  are  effaced.     The  true  reason  of  their  success, 

.in   the  opinion  of  their  most  prejudiced   adversaries,  was  the 

I  strictness  of   their  spiritual   discipline.     "The  jansenists,"  says 

I  Father  Kapin,  "advanced  their  affairs  by  disguising  their  real 


In  troduction.  6  5 


sentiments;  this  was  by  a  morality  that  had  nothing  but  what 
was  beautiful  and  edifying."  (Hist,  du  jansenisme,  p.  496.)  One 
of  the  least  equivocal  marks  of  heresy  was  purity  of  morals. 
Port-Royal1  drew  from  this  valuable  testimony  her  consolation 
and  strength  in  the  midst  of  the  severest  trials. 

I  cannot  speak  better  of  the  moral  bearing  of  the  work  under- 
taken by  the  solitaries  of  Port-Royal  than  Henri  Martin  has  done 
in  that  admirable  and  well-thought-out  page  of  his  Histoire  de 
France:  "Thorough  sincerity  in  the  action  of  man  upon  man, 
and  a  thorough  disdain  of  all  precautions  and  of  all  polity  in 
things  pertaining  to  God,  characterize  what  may  be  called  the 
method  of  Saint -Cyran.  He  desires  to  regenerate  souls  indi- 
vidually, not  to  obtain  by  surprise  the  superficial  adhesion  of 
a  great  number,  still  less  to  demand  a  verbal  adhesion  that 
the  heart  does  not  ratify.  He  was  not  the  man  to  compel 
heretical  populations  to  become  Catholics  in  appearance.  What 
matters  appearance  to  him'?  What  matter  outward  forms  to 
him  1  It  is  better  to  gain  one  soul  to  the  internal  Christ 
than  an  empire  to  the  external  Church.  Here  Saint -Cyran 
touches  Descartes,  although  turning  his  back  on  him.  .  .  . 
Descartes  regenerated  the  mind ;  Saint  -  Cyran  endeavours  to 
regenerate  the  heart.  ...  It  is  for  this  that  Jansenism  deserves, 
even  at  the  present  time,  our  serious  study,  too  much  inclined 
as  we  are  now  to  place  our  hopes  in  social  and  collective  reforms, 
which  will  remain  unrealizable  so  long  as  they  are  not  based  on 
the  reformation  of  the  human  soul.  .  .  .  We  must  be  very  self- 


1  The  Mother  Agnes  writes  to  Mme.  de  Foix,  April  16,  1663:  "  There 
was  a  Jesuit  who  preached,  this  Lent,  in  Burgundy,  that  solitude,  retire- 
ment, the  desire  for  penance,  love  and  zeal  for  the  penitential  canons,  and 
to  see  the  ancient  penance  and  all  the  other  maxims  of  Christian  perfection 
re-established  in  the  Church  was  the  true  mark  of  heresy.  After  that,  must 
we  not  consider  ourselves  very  happy,  according  to  the  Gospel  ? "  Arnauld 
said,  on  his  side,  "The  whole  court  knows  that,  a  bishop  reproving  an  abbe 
of  good  family  because  his  conduct  was  not  sufficiently  regular,  '  What  do 
you  wish  us  to  do  ? '  replied  the  abbe.  '  If  we  were  more  regular  we  should 
be  taken  for  jansenists,  and  that  would  mean  exclusion  from  all  dignities." 
(Phantdme  du  jansdnisme,  p.  28.)  A  few  pages  further  on  he  quotes  the 
words  of  Cardinal  Bona :  "What!  to  be  poor,  diligent  in  prayer,  and  to 
exhort  the  faithful  to  be  diligent  in  it,  to  live  in  an  exemplary  manner, 
and  to  preach  Christ  in  an  apostolic  manner,  is  that  what  is  called  Jansenism  ? 
Please  God  we  were  all  jansenists  in  this  manner  !  "  (p.  33.) 


66  Port-Royal  Education. 

reliant  in  order  to  be  as  wrong  as  the  jansenists.  However  far 
removed  we  may  be  from  their  doctrines,  we  must  acknowledge 
that  they  have  enhanced  the  moral  grandeur  of  man;  they  are 
the  Stoics  of  Christianity."  (t.  xii.  pp.  84,  85.) 

If  they  were  vanquished  in  their  generous  efforts,  their  adver- 
saries paid  dear  for  their  victory ;  they  received  a  mortal  wound 
from  the  arrow  of  the  Provincials,  or  rather,  to  speak  more 
correctly,  it  was  the  ancient  faith  that  succumbed  in  this  re- 
lentless conflict.  Contemplating  the  field  of  battle,  Boileau, 
who  had  friends  in  both  camps,  said  like  a  satirist,  "  Oh ! 
what  madmen  men  are !"  (Letter  to  M.  Brossette.)  Bayle 
decided  in  his  usual  manner,  "It  is  properly  a  matter  of 
Pyrrhonism."  (Letter  to  Math.  Marais.)  "All  that  is  nonsense  !" 
exclaimed  the  courtiers  and  men  of  the  world,  according  to  Mme. 
de  Choisy  (letter  to  the  comtesse  de  Maure,  1655);  and  Christians 
complained,  with  Mme.  de  Sevign£,  of  all  these  over-refined  dis- 
cussions on  grace  :  "  Thicken  religion  a  little,  it  is  all  evaporating 
through  being  over-refined."  Kidicule  had  invaded  the  sanctuary 
with  that  cloud  of  pamphlets  that  they  were  throwing  at  one 
another's  heads,  to  set  the  laughers  on  its  side.  The  titles  are 
sufficiently  significant :  A  Damper  for  the  Jansenists,  The  Lantern 
of  St.  Augustine,  Snuffers  for  the  Lantern,  A  Curry-comb  for  the 
jansenist  Pegasus,  Ointment  for  the  Burn,  The  Country  of  Jansenia, 
Illustrations  of  the  Jesuits'  Almanack,  Essay  of  the  New  Tale  of 
Mother  Goose,  or  Illustrations  of  the  Game  of  the  Constitution, 
The  Jesuit  Harlequin,  The  Pasquinade  of  St.  Medard,  An 
Apology  for  Cartouche,  or  the  Villain  without  Reproach,  by 
the  grace  of  Father  Quesnel,  The  Precept  and  Pastoral  Ordinance 
of  Momus.  And  what  songs,  quatrains,  satirical  prints,  comedies, 
and  public  masquerades  ! 1 

1  Gerberon  describes  the  procession  organized  by  the  Jesuits  of  Macon  : 
"They  made  all  their  scholars  march  in  order,  two  by  two,  through  the 
streets  of  the  town,  dressed  in  white.      After  them  came  a  triumphal  car, 
on  which  was  a  handsome  young  man  dressed  up  as  a  girl,  with  everything 
that  the  vainest  women  use  as  ornaments  ;  and  in  order  to  denote  what  he 
represented,  he  carried  a  banner,  on  which  were  read  these  words,  in  hand 
some  characters,  GKACE  STJFFISANTE.     Behind  this  car  was  seen  anothe 
young  man  tied  and  bound,  who  wore  a  paper  mitre  and  other  pontific 
ornaments  to  match,  and  who  was  covered  from  head  to  foot  with  a  lar{ 
black  veil  to  denote  the  defeat  and  disgrace  of  Jansenius."     (Hist.  gtn.  < 
janstnisme,  t.  i.  p.  483.) 


Introduction.  67 


French  humour  indulged  in  it  to  its  heart's  content,  and  found 
the  subject  inexhaustible.  What  became  of  religious  beliefs  in 
the  midst  of  this  universal  bantering  1  Father  Kapin  has  said 
a  word  which  is  really  the  best  and  most  sensible  in  all  his 
writings :  "It  is  not  by  these  means  that  the  Gospel  is  preached 
and  defended."  (Mem.  t.  ii.  p.  195.)  While  the  pastors  were  fight- 
ing with  their  crooks,  as  they  are  shown  in  a  print,  the  wolves 
carried  off  the  sheep.  Is  this,  after  all,  to  be  so  much  regretted  ? 
I  think  not ;  for  behind  incredulity  and  indifference  walked 
liberty  of  conscience,  tolerance,  justice,  and  humanity.  Maurepas, 
who,  under  Cardinal  Fleury,  took  an  active  part  in  this  trifling, 
was  not,  perhaps,  wrong  in  saying,  "  We  have  no  other  means  of 
avoiding  the  civil  war  that  the  Jesuits  wish  to  bring  on  us."  (Mem. 
t.  ii.  p.  73.)  In  fact,  really  religious  minds  have  no  reason  to 
complain  that  all  this  polemical  theology  has  ceased  to  separate 
them  from  God ;  and  those  who  are  more  sensitive  to  the 
love  of  their  neighbour  rejoice  to  see  so  copious  a  source  of 
terrible  hatred  exhausted  and  religious  persecutions  for  ever 
ended.  May  Port-Koyal,  to  which  we  owe  so  many  grand 
lessons,  still  secure  to  us,  by  the  sight  of  its  ruins,  this  glorious 
conquest  of  the  modern  spirit — horror  of  intolerance,  and  respect 
for  liberty. 

FELIX  CADET. 


PORT-ROYAL  EDUCATION. 


EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  WRITERS  OF  PORT-ROYAL. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  PETITES  ECOLES. 

I  WISH  you  could  read  in  my  heart  the  affection  that  I  have  for 
children,  and  how  there  is  nothing  that  is  not  modified  by  the 
reflections  that  the  prudence  of  faith  and  grace  obliges  us  to 
make.  And  when  I  formed  the  design  of  building  a  house  which  j 
should  be,  as  it  were,  a  seminary  for  the  Church,  to  preserve  in  j 
it  the  innocence  of  the  children,  without  which  I  perceive  every  : 
day  that  it  is  difficult  for  them  to  become  good  ecclesiastics, 
I  only  intended  to  build  it  for  s_tx_childcfin,  whom  I  would  have 
chosen  throughout  the  city  of  Paris,  as  it  might  please  God  that 
I  should  meet  with  them,  and  I  would  have  given  them  a  master 
especially  to  teach  them  Latin,  and  with  him  a  good  priest,  whom 
I  had  already  in  view,  to  direct  and  govern  their  consciences. 
And  I  intended  to  give  them  for  Latin  (if  he  whom  I  had  should 
happen  to  fail  me)  a  man  of  twenty  or  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
knowing  that  an  older  man  is  usually  rather  unfit  to  teach 
languages  to  children.  This  design  having  been  destroyed  by 
my  imprisonment,1  I  have  thought  no  more  of  it,  and  have  given 
all  the  money  that  I  had,  except  two  thousand  francs  for  this 
house,  to  the  poor.  It  is  true  that  finding  here  the  son  of  a  poor 
widow,  who  seemed  to  have  good  abilities,  I  have  gradually  taught 
him  in  my  room;  but  a  domestic  disturbance2  having  driven  him 

1  On  Friday,   14  May,   1638,   Saint-Cyran  was  taken  to  the  Castle  of 
Vincennes,  where  he  remained  a  prisoner  until  the  death  of  Richelieu. 

2  M.  de  Saint-Cyran,  although  very  badly  treated  by  the  lieutenant  of  the 
governor  of  Vincennes,  had  given  some  attention  to  his  two  sons  ;  and  "  as  his 
zeal  for  the  education  of  children  was  very  great,"  says  Lancelot,  "  he  added 

69 


7O  Port-Royal  Education. 

away,  I  have  been  obliged  to  continue  my  charity  to  him  by  send- 
ing him  to  Port-Koyal,  because  otherwise  he  would  have  been 
ruined  among  the  soldiers,  and  those  who  had  taken  him  from  me 
by  their  authority  would  have  succeeded  in  their  design  of  injur- 
ing him.  In  fact,  the  circumstances  were  such  that  I  could  not 
abandon  him  without  displeasing  God  and  violating  the  character 
that  He  has  given  me,  which  is  a  personal  law,  and  ought  rather 
to  be  obeyed  than  public  laws.1  But  I  have  since  willingly  con- 
sented that  the  good  work  that  I  began  with  the  children  of 
M.  Bignon2  should  be  continued  at  Port-Eoyal,  as  much  because 
it  is  difficult  for  me  to  interrupt  what  I  am  doing  for  God's 
service  as  because  M.  Bignon  gave  me  two  thousand  francs  to 
employ  as  I  should  think  fit,  and  which  I  had  determined  to 
employ  on  the  above  -  mentioned  building,  in  order  that  the 
children  might  share  in  the  charity  of  their  father.  For  I  am 
much  concerned  lest  those  who  have  chosen  me  as  the  instrument 
of  some  good  work  should  not  be  the  first  to  reap  the  benefit  of  it. 
Nevertheless,  I  understood  this  in  such  a  manner  that  if  the 
children  turned  out  intractable  and  unwilling  to  submit  to  the 
discipline  under  which  I  wished  them  to  live  in  this  house,  it 
should  be  in  my  power  to  dismiss  them  without  those  from  whom 
I  had  received  them,  not  even  excepting  M.  Bignon,  bearing  me 
any  ill-will  for  it.  ... 

a  third  to  them,  who  was  the  son  of  a  poor  woman,  a  niece  of  the  precentor 
of  the  Sainte-Chapelle.  This  last  s<ftm  outstripped  the  other  two,  which 
made  the  lieutenant's  wife  so  jealous,  tnat  she  forbade  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  to 
see  any  children,  under  the  pretext  that  lie  might  instil  bad  principles  into 
them."  (M&m.  t.  i.  p.  133.) 

1  The  clearness  of  these  declarations  explains  the  ascendancy  of  Saint-Cyran. 
He  said  one  day  to  Lemaitre  :  ' '  You  are  not  yet  accustomed  to  this  language, 
and  people  do  not  talk  so  in  the  world,  but  here  are  six  feet  of  ground  (his 
room)  where  neither  chancellor  nor  any  one  else  is  feared.     There  is  no  power 
that  can  prevent  us  speaking  the  truth  here  as  it  ought  to  be  spoken." 

2  "The  establishment  of  the  Petites  iZcoles  de  Port-Royal  was  due  to  the 
solicitations  of  this  celebrated  magistrate  (Jerome  Bignon).     M.  de  Saint- 
Cyran  had  often  given  him  his  ideas  on  the  Christian  education  of  children, 
and  M.  Bignon,  after  pressing  him  for  a  long  time  to  put  his  ideas  in  practice, 
demanded  as  a  tribute  due  to  their  mutual  friendship  that  the  pious  abbe 
should  undertake  the  charge  of  the  Christian  education  of  his  sons,  Jerome 
and  Thierri  Bignon.     It  was  on  their  behalf  that  the  Petites  ticoles  were  set 
up  outside  Port-Royal  by  MM.   Lancelot  and  de  Saci,  while  their  sister, 
Marie  Bignon,  was  educated  within  the  monastery."  (Supplement  au  Necro- 
loge,  p.  398.) 


Saint-Cyran  :    The  Petites  (Lcoles.  71 

The  duty  of  instructing  children  is  in  itself  so  irksome,  that 
I  have  seldom  seen  a  wise  man  who  has  not  complained  andj 
grown  tired  of  it,  however  short  a  time  he  has  worked  at  it ;  and 
the  most  devout  men  in  the  order  of  Saint-Benedict  have  found 
this  penance  the  hardest  of  all.  You  may  read  an  example  of 
it  in  the  life  of  St.  Arsenius  j1  and  for  my  own  part  I  have  always 
considered  this  occupation  so  troublesome,2  that  I  have  never 
employed  any  man  in  it  to  whom  God  had  not  imparted  this  gift  ;\ 
or  if  I  have  been  deceived  in  my  choice,  I  have  removed  him 
as  soon  as  I  perceived  that  he  did  not  possess  it.  I  should  think 
I  had  done  a  great  deal,  although  I  had  not  advanced  them  much 
in  Latin  up  to  the  age  of  twelve  years,  by  causing  them  to  pass 
these  early  years  in  the  close  of  a  house  or  monastery  in  the 
country,  by  giving  them  all  the  pastimes  suitable  to  their  age,3 
and  showing  them  the  example  of  a  good  life  in  those  who  were 
with  me.  .  .  . 

Extract  from  a  letter  of  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  written  from  the 
Bois  de  Yincennes.   (Supplement  au  Necrologe,  p.  46.) 

OF  THE  CHAEITY  OF  M.  DE  SAINT-CYRAN  TOWARDS 
CHILDREN. 

...  He  thought  that  the  whole  course  of  life  depended  on 
this  early  age,  and  that,  provided  the  young  were  well  brought  up, 
it  might  be  hoped  that  public  posts  would  be  filled  with  the  most : 
worthy  officers  and  the  Church  with  the  most  virtuous  men,  and  j 
that  the  Republic4  and  private  families  would  draw  from  it  in- 

1  Arsenius  (350-445),  governor  of  the  children  of  Theodosius  the  Great, 
whose  court  he  quitted  to  pass  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  a  desert  of  Egypt. 

2  He  calls  it   "a  tempest  of  the  mind,"   on  account  of  its  religious 
responsibility. 

3  This  wise  care  not  to   overpress  the  children  suggested  to  Rousseau 
his  theory  of  negative  education  up  to  this  age  of  twelve  years:  "You  are 
alarmed,"  he  said,  "to  see  the  child  waste  his  early  years  in  doing  nothing  ? 
What  !    Is  it  nothing  to  be  happy  ?   Is  it  nothing  to  jump,  play,  and  run  all 
day  long?    He  will  never  be  so  busy  in  all  his  life."     Saint-Cyran,  who 
allows  the  child  all  the  pastimes  suitable  to  his  age,  is  very  careful  to 
surround  him  with  good  examples. 

4  Tljat  is,  the  State.    This  sense  appears  very  clearly  from  the  distinction 
that  Etienne  Pasquier,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  draws  of  "  three  kinds  of 
republics:    the  royal,  the  manorial,  and  the  popular."    (Lettres,  liv.   xix. 
lettre  7.) 


Port-Royal  Education. 


calculable  advantages.  So  that  it  might  be  said  of  this  good  work, 
which  is  now  so  much  neglected  and  abandoned,  POTTO  ununi  est 
necessarium,  that  it  is,  in  a  sense,  the  one  thing  needful,  since, 
if  it  were  entirely  successful,  most  other  disorders  would  be 
remedied;  on  the  other  hand,  if  this  foundation  be  wanting,  it 
was  a  necessary  consequence  that  the  effects  of  it  would  be 
felt  during  the  remainder  of  life. 

M.  de  Saint-Cyran  also  used  to  say  that  whatever  virtues 
parents  might  otherwise  possess,  this  single  point  was  fitted  to 
condemn  them  if  they  did  not  do  their  duty  in  obtaining  a  'good 
.education  for  their  children,1  which  is  at  the  present  time  more 
Irare  and  difficult  to  find  than  is  thought.  He  could  not  suffi- 
ciently wonder  at  the  blindness  of  most  parents,  who  do  not  see 
that,  even  if  there  were  no  question  of  eternity  in  it,  their  own 
interest  should  lead  them  to  fulfil  this  obligation,  since  it  only  too 
often  happens  that  those  whom  they  think  they  have  brought  into 
the  world  to  be  the  support  and  honour  of  their  family  become 
\  the  disgrace  and  ruin  of  it  for  want  of  a  good  education.  He 
could  not  understand  how,  when  it  is  a  question  of  settling  their 
children  in  places,  in  employments,  and  in  the  world,  they  in- 
convenience themselves  as  if  they  were  staking  everything  on 
it,  although  they  often  only  procure  for  them  the  means  of  ruining 
themselves;  instead  of  which,  when  it  is  necessary  to  educate 
them  well,  for  the  satisfaction  of  their  own  consciences  and  the 
secure  establishment  of  their  children's  well-being,  they  are  unable 
to  find  the  means  for  it,  and  complain  of  the  smallest  expense. 
And  truly  in  this  they  show  that  they  cannot  be  true  Christians, 
since  not  only  is  acting  in  this  way  like  building  their  house  on  the 
quicksands,  but  is  even  throwing  themselves  with  those  who 
compose  it,  and  who  ought  to  support  it,  into  the  flood  which  beats 
against  it.  He  deplored  the  misfortune  of  our  age,  in  which  the 
devil  had  found  a  much  easier  means  than  did  formerly  that 
Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt,  who  was  only  his  shadow,  of  ruining  the 
children  of  the  Church ;  this  plague  being  so  much  the  more 

1  Saint-Cyran,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  a  person  of  quality,  says  :  "  As  they 
hasten  to  baptism  they  should  hasten  to  education,  and  all  that  is  done  for 
children  without  that  brings  the  malediction  of  God  on  the  father  and 
mother,  who  are  the  visible  guardian  angels."  (Lettres  chretiennes  et  spiritu- 
elks  de  Saint-Cyran,  1685,  t.  ii.  p.  326.) 


Lancelot :    The  Charity  of  Saint-Cyran.  73 


appalling,  as  he  often  makes  use  of  the  negligence  or  avarice  or 
other  passions  of  their  parents  in  order  to  ruin  them,  instead  of 
which  the  Israelites  felt  at  least  their  ill-fortune,  and  did  all  in 
their  power  to  save  their  children  from  the  rage  of  the  tyrant. 

He  admired  the  Son  of  God,  who,  in  the  highest  functions  of 
His  ministry,  would  not  that  little  children  should  be  forbidden  to 
approach  Him;  who  embraced  and  blessed  them;  who  has  charged 
us  so  strictly  not  to  despise  or  neglect  them,  and  who  has  spoken 
of  them  in  such  favourable  and  astonishing  terms  as  to  astound 
those  who  offend  the  least  of  them.  Thus  M.  de  Saint-Cyran 
always  showed  a  kindness  for  children  that  went  even  so  far  as  a 
sort  of  respect,  to  honour  in  them  the  innocence  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  who  dwells  in  them.  He  blessed  them  and  made  the  sign 
of  the  cross  on  their  foreheads,  and  when  they  were  able  to 
understand  it,  he  always  spoke  some  kind  word,  which  was  like  the  I 
seed  of  some  truth  that  he  threw  out  in  passing,  and  in  the  sight 
of  God,  that  it  might  germinate  in  due  season.  Once  when  he 
came  to  see  us  he  went  into  the  children's  class-room,  and  as 
he  always  had  a  cheerful  look  and  a  heart  inclined  to  do  good,  he 
said,  caressing  them  :  "Well,  what  are  you  doing?  for  you  must 
not  lose  time,  and  what  you  do  not  fill  up  the  devil  takes  for  him- 
self. ..."  They  showed  him  their  Yirgil  that  they  were  studying, 
and  he  said,  "Do  you  see  all  those  beautiful  verses  1  Yirgil, 
in  making  them,  procured  his  own  damnation,  because  he  made 
them  through  vanity  and  for  glory.  But  you  must  save  yourselves! 
in  learning  them,  because  you  ought  to  do  it  for  the  sake  ofj 
obedience  and  to  fit  yourselves  for  serving  God." 

A  boy  of  whom  he  had  taken  charge  during  his  imprisonment, 
and  to  whom  he  afterwards  continued  his  kindness,  having  fallen 
into  evil  courses,  gave  him  so  much  pain  that  he  told  me  that  all 
his  troubles  in  prison  were  nothing  compared  to  this  affliction. 
After  his  release  he  wished  him  to  visit  him  every  day,  and 
received  him,  and  left  whatever  occupation  he  was  engaged  in, 
even  his  great  work,  in  order  to  speak  a  kind  word  to  him,  or  to 
try  and  lead  him  back  to  God.  He  did  not  succeed,  however,  and 
this  would  be  a  story1  worth  writing  at  length,  to  show  how 

"  For  nothing,"  said  Lancelot,  who  had  been  entrusted  with  the  educa- 
tion  of  this  boy,  and   shared   the   work   with  M.  de   Saci,  "shows  more 


74  Port-Royal  Education. 


unfathomable  are  the  judgments  of  God,  and  that  the  prayers  of 
the  saints  do  not  suffice  to  avert  the  perdition  of  those  whom  God 
has  abandoned.  This  boy,  having  begun  by  stealing  an  old  skull- 
cap from  M.  Singlin,1  and  selling  it  for  two  liards  in  order  to  have 
something  to  gamble  with,  and  afterwards  taking  all  he  could 
pilfer,  advanced  by  such  rapid  strides  towards  his  ruin,  that  he 
even  took  the  silver  spoons,  fell  into  all  kinds  of  debauchery,  and 
became  at  length  a  thorough  rogue,  as  his  mother  herself  once  told 
me.  .  .  . 

M.  de  Saint-Cyran  thought  so  highly  of  the  charity  of  those 
who  employed  themselves  in  bringing  up  children  in  a  Christian 
manner,  that  he  said  there  was  no  occupation  more  worthy  of 
a  Christian  in  the  Church ;  that  after  the  love  of  which  it  is 
said,  majorem  haec  dilectionem  nemo  kobei*  (St.  John  xv.  13), 
which  makes  us  willing  to  die  for  our  friends,  this  was  the 
greatest ;  that  it  was  the  shortest  way  of  going  back  in  his  mind 
and  expiating  the  faults  of  his  youth;  that  one  of  the  greatest 
consolations  we  could  have  in  dying  was  that  we  had  contributed 
to  the  good  education  of  some  child;  and  that,  in  fine,  this 
employment  was  sufficient  by  itself  to  sanctify  a  soul,  provided  it 
had  been  carried  out  with  charity  and  patience.  He  said  that  we 
ought  to  be,  not  only  the  guardian  angels,  but  in  some  sort  the 
providence  of  children  who  were  committed  to  our  charge,  because 
our  chief  care  should  be  always  to  attach  them  to  what  is  good 
with  gentleness  and  charity,  as  we  have  need  that  God  should 
attach  us  to  it  and  make  us  do  it.  He  usually  reduced  what  it  is 
necessary  to  do  with  children  to  three  things :  to  speak  little, 
bear  with  much,  and  pray  more. 


plainly  that  a  person  does  not  do  all  the  good  he  imagines  in  undertaking  the 
care  of  a  child  if  he  does  not  seriously  devote  himself  to  it  and  take 
all  necessary  trouble.  He  acts  then  like  a  nurse,  who  should  be  satisfied 
with  giving  the  breast  to  her  nursling  at  stated  hours,  and  should  expose  it 
the  rest  ot  the  time  to  whatever  might  happen.  This  poor  child  then,  not 
being  sufficiently  watched  over,  fell  into  disorderly  ways. "  (Mem.  de  Saint- 
Cyran,  t.  i.  p.  133.) 

1  Singlin,  confessor  of  the  nuns  at  Port-Royal  for  twenty-six  years,  then 
superior  of  the  two  houses  des  Champs  and  the  Faubourg  Saint-Jacques  for 
eight  years,  died  1664. 

2  "  Greater  love  hath  no  man  than  this,  that  a  man  lay  down  his  life  for 
liis  friends." 


Lancelot:    The  Charity  of  Saint- Cy  ran.  75 

He  desired  that  we  should  bear  with  their  faults  and  weak-i 
nesses,    in   order   to   induce   God  to  show  mercy  to   ours,  andj 
perhaps  afterwards  to  strengthen  these  young  plants  when  they\ 
should  learn  what  patience   we   have   exercised   towards   them. 
He  added  that  we  should  have  still  more  charity  and  pity  for 
those  whom  we  saw  to  be  more  unformed  and  backward.  .  .  . 
He  could  not  bear  that  anyone  should  employ  too  severe  looks 
and  too  imperious  a  manner,  which  had  something  of  disdain, 
or  was  likely  to  intimidate  them  and  make  them  pusillanimous,1 
which  is  expressly  forbidden  us  by  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles. 

On  the  contrary,  he  wished  a  suitable  familiarity  to  be  used\ 
with  them,  which  should  win  them  by  a  calculated  gentleness  and  | 
a   truly  paternal   love,  and  which   should   lead   us   to   be  very 
condescending  to  them,  since  if  they  had  no  confidence  in  us,  and 
did   not  perceive  that  we  felt  kindly  towards  them,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  do  anything.2     And  this  explains  why  he  often 
condescended  in  prison  to  play  at  ball  on  a  table  with  children  of 
seven  or  eight  years  old. 

He  did  not  wish  the  teachers  to  have  recourse  hastily  to  the 
use  of  the  birch,  unless  for  very  serious  faults,  and  then  only 
after  having  employed  all  other  means  of  punishment.  For  he 
desired  them  to  bear  with  their  faults  in  order  to  put  themselves 
to  the  test  before  God,  and  to  do  nothing  rashly,  and  also  to  pray 
for  them  before  punishing  them;  then  he  wished  them  to  be 
warned  by  signs  only,  then  by  words,  and  after  several  reprimands 
to  employ  threats,  that  they  should  be  deprived  for  a  time  of 

1  The  recommendation  is  excellent,  but  how  is  it  to  be  reconciled  with  the 
precept  to  annihilate  our  own  will  ?  The  Mother  Agnes  wrote,  30  April, 
1652,  to  Mdlle.  Perdreau:  "  Read,  in  IS  Amour  de  Dieu  of  the  saintly  bishop 
of  Geneva,  what  he  says  on  the  death  of  the  will." 

44  Leading  them  with  watchfulness  and  gentleness,"  said  Saint-Cyran,  in 
a  letter  to  a  person  of  quality,  "and  sometimes  requesting  instead  of 
commanding  them,  and  complying  a  little  with  their  humour  for  a  time 
in  order  to  lead  them  to  act  without  such  compliance  in  the  future.  .  .  . 
Only  care  must  be  taken  to  use  this  compliance  with  much  circumspection 
and  impartiality,  always  bearing  in  mind  that  we  must  not  stop  there,  and 
that,  if  we  are  obliged  to  condescend  to  them,  it  is  only  in  order  to 
raise  them  to  our  own  level  and  to  withdraw  them  little  by  little  from  their 
inferior  position,  and  not  to  satisfy  our  own  inclinations  by  following  theirs, 
and  to  indulge  ourselves  with  them  in  an  indolent  compliance  so  easy  to  our 
nature."  (Lcttres  chrctiemies  et  spirituelles,  1685,  t.  ii.  p.  326.) 


76  Port-Royal  Education. 


something  they  liked,  or  of  play,  even  of  their  luncheon  or  part  of 
their  breakfast,  and  that  the  birch  should  be  used  only  in  the  last 
extremity  and  for  grave  faults,  especially  with  those  who  were 
seen  to  be  capable  of  being  won  by  gentleness  and  reason.  He, 
however,  desired  this  punishment  to  be  used  with  those  who 
were  naturally  thoughtless,  or  hasty-tempered,  or  who  were  given 
to  lying  or  laughing  on  the  most  serious  occasions.1  In  fine,  he 
did  not  wish,  any  more  than  Saint  Benedict,  that  faults  committed 
in  church  should  be  pardoned. 

But  he  said  that  using  chastisement  without  much  previous 
prayer  was  to  act  like  a  Jew,  and  not  to  know  that  all 
depended  on  the  blessing  and  grace  of  God,  which  we  should 
endeavour  to  draw  down  on  them  by  our  patience  in  bearing 
with  them.  He  added  that  sometimes  even  we  should  punish 
and  chastise  ourselves  instead  of  them,  as  much  because  we 
should  always  fear  that  we  may  have  been  partly  responsible 
for  their  faults  by  our  hastiness  or  negligence  as  because  this 
duty  was  a  general  obligation  on  all  who  were  entrusted  with  the 
conduct  of  others.2  He  said  that  it  was  necessary  to  oppose 
a  constant  watchfulness  to  that  of  the  devil,  who  is  always 
seeking  an  entrance  into  these  tender  souls.  He  recommended 
also  to  sustain  the  prayers  of  the  children  of  whom  they  had 
charge  by  their  own,  thus  aiding  the  attention  which  was  not 
to  be  expected  from  them. 

/    He  was  careful  to  warn  that,  in  order  to  guide  children  well,  it 
/was  necessary  plus  prier  que  crier?  to  ask  rather  than  scold,  and  to 

1  M.   Varin  makes  this  sprightly  remark :   "  Saint-Cyran  only  whipped 
children  for  grave  faults,  but  he  put  bursts  of  laughter  in  the  number  of 
grave  faults."  (La  vtrite  sur  Us  Arnauld,  t.  ii.  p.  185.)    The  critic  should 
not  have  omitted  these  important  words  :  "  On  the  most  serious  occasions." 

2  A  very  wise  precept,  in  which  we  are  not  to  suppose  a  refinement  of 
spirituality.     It  is  a  very  judicious  and  exact  estimation  of  the  responsibility 
for  the  faults  of  the  pupils  that  may  often  be  traced  back  to  the  master. 
May  not  their  inattention,  for  example,  be  often  explained  by  facts  which 
are  not  in   the  least  personal  to   them  ?    The  unprepared  lesson  is  not 
interesting,  it  is  too  long,  it  is  not  sufficiently  within  their  capacity,  &c. 

3  A  very  effective  conjunction  of  words.     How  many  young  teachers, 
in  the  inconsiderate  zeal  of  their  first  attempts,  would  derive  profit  from 
meditating  upon  it  ?    It  is  not  only  hygiene  that  recommends  it  for  the 
wise  conservation  of  energy,  it  is  especially  pedagogy,  which  teaches  that 
the  authority  of  the  master  has  no  surer  foundation  than  calmness  and  self- 
control. 


Lancelot:    The  Charity  of  Saint-Cyran.  77 

l  speak  more  of  them  to  God  than  of  God  to  them,  for  he  did  not 
like  long  speeches  on  piety  to  be  made  to  them,  or  that  they 

\  should  be  wearied  with  instruction.  He  wished  that  they  should 
only  be  spoken  to  at  those  opportunities  and  on  those  occasions 
which  God  called  into  existence,  and  according  to  the  impulse 
that  He  gave  us,  and  the  disposition  to  receive  it  well  that  He 
showed  us  in  them,  because  the  impulse  to  give  depended  on  God 
as  well  as  the  gifts,  and  that  what  we  said  to  them  in  this 
way  had  a  quite  different  effect  from  what  we  might  say  of 
ourselves. 

In  fine,  he  thought  that  the  chief  point  in  the  good  education 
of  children  was  the  good  example  that  should  be  given  them,1 
and  the  perfect  regularity  of  the  house  in  which  they  were 
pupils.  A  Father  of  the  Church  once  said,  speaking  of  the 
education  of  a  young  girl,  "Kemember,  you  who  have  brought 
a  virgin  into  the  world,  that  you  must  teach  her  more  by 
example  than  precept  ....  She  must  hear  nothing  but  what 
has  reference  to  the  fear  of  God.  Keep  from  her  that  criminal 
liberty  that  children  take;  do  not  let  the  girls  or  the  servants 
who  accompany  her  frequent  the  world  lest  they  teach  their 
pupils  more  evil  than  they  would  otherwise  have  learnt."  And 
this  is  what  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  recommended  for  the  boys  as 
well  as  the  girls,  desiring  also  that  they  should  be  careful  to  1 
limit  intercourse  with  the  outside  world,  from  which  they  might 
receive  some  hurtful  influence;  and  he  was  accustomed  to  say 
that  communication  with  the  world  was  infectious,  and  did  no 

\less  harm  to  the  soul  than  the  plague  did  to  the  body.  Neither 
did  he  wish  that  money  should  be  left  with  them.  And  one  day 
when  he  sent  some  sweetmeats  to  a  little  girl  he  gave  this  caution 
to  a  person  who  had  charge  of  some  children :  "Do  not  accustom 
them  to  the  delights  of  earth,  which  destroy  the  taste  for  those 
of  Heaven." 

He  could  not  tolerate  that  the  sciences  and  study  should  be' 

1  We  feel  that  Saint-Cyran  means  here  by  good  example  especially  the 
practice  of  religion,  but  it  is  easy  to  give  a  wider  and  more  general  interpre- 
tation to  this  advice.  Pedagogy  has  no  more  important  precept.  The 
teachers  of  Port-Royal,  with  Saint-Cyran  at  their  head,  had  the  right  to 
place  in  the  first  rank  of  maxims  that  which  they  practised  so  well  themselves, 
namely,  example. 


Port-Royal  Education. 


jmade  the  principal  thing  in  the  education  of  children  as  we 
do  now.  He  regarded  this  conduct  as  one  of  the  greatest 
mistakes  which  could  be  committed  against  the  sanctity  of 
this  employment,  and  observed  that,  besides  dissatisfying  those 
who  were  backward  and  making  others  vain,  it  reacted  on 
the  State  and  the  Church,  burdening  the  Spouse  of  Christ 
with  a  number  of  persons  whom  she  had  not  called,  and  the 
State  with  a  great  number  of  idlers  who  considered  themselves 
above  the  rest  because  they  knew  a  little  Latin,  and  who  thought 
they  would  be  dishonoured  in  following  the  calling  in  which  their 
birth  would  have  placed  them.  Therefore  he  said  that  among 
the  children  of  whom  one  should  be  entirely  master,  although 
there  might  be  a  great  many  of  them,  very  few  ought  to  be 
put  to  study,1  and  only  those  in  whom  great  docility  and  sub- 
mission had  been  noticed,  with  some  mark  of  piety  and  of  assured 
virtue. 

M.  de  Saint-Cyran,  having  this  conception  of  the  education 
of  youth,  and  regarding  it  as  one  of  the  most  necessary  duties 
of  the  State  and  the  Church,  often  said,  and  he  once  wrote 
to  me,  that  he  would  have  been  delighted  to  pass  all  his  life 
in  it.  But  he  did  not  intend,  in  saying  that,  to  make  himself 
a  slave  to  the  temper  and  injustice  of  parents  who  only  burden 
us  with  their  children  in  order  to  relieve  themselves  at  a  time 
when  they  have  only  the  trouble  of  them,  and  take  them  away 
as  soon  as  they  can  to  sacrifice  them  to  their  interest  and  vanity ; 
for  it  may  be  said  in  this  case  that  an  occupation  worthy  of 
the  angels  and  a  work  of  love  is  turned  into  meanness  and 
pedantry.  And  certainly  it  would  be  better,  if  some  persons 
are  reduced  by  necessity  to  submit  to  such  conditions,  to  learn 
a  trade  or  to  cultivate  the  land.  They  would  have  at  least 
this  consolation,  that  they  were  doing  penance  in  the  way 
that  God  imposed  it  on  the  first  man,  and  would  be  exempt 
from  a  great  number  of  bad  consequences  in  which  they  are 
often  involved  either  for  themselves  or  for  those  who  are  brought 

1  Arnauld  d'Andilly  advises  the  queen-mother  to  diminish  the  number 
of  colleges,  and  only  to  have  schools  to  teach  reading  and  writing.  (VAKIN, 
Id  Vtritt^  sur  Us  Arnauld,  1847,  t.  ii.  p.  353.)  This  was  also  the  idea 
of  Richelieu, 


Lancelot:    The  Charity  of  Saint-Cyran.  79 


up  in  a  thoroughly  pagan  manner;  and  besides,  the  labour  a  man 
undergoes  in  this  employment,  when  it  is  not  governed  by  the 
mnxims  of  God,  is  much  greater  when  he  takes  some  care  in 
discharging  it,  than  that  of  cultivating  the  land,  and  under- 
mines the  body  more,  and  very  much  accelerates  the  end  of 
our  life.1 

M.  de  Saint-Cyran  never  undertook  the  charge  of  children 
unless  he  had  some  hopes  of  being  entirely  their  master,  and 
was  certain  of  the  mind  and  intentions  of  the  parents.  Thus, 
one  day,  the  late  duchesse  de  Guise  having  sent  a  person  to 
speak  to  him  about  the  education  of  the  present  M.  de  Guise 
(Henri  II.),  who  was  then  destined  for  the  Church,  as  he  had 
a  great  desire  to  see  persons  of  high  rank  better  educated  than 
others,  because  he  knew  its  importance,  he  did  not  decline  the 
proposal,  and  even  partly  pledged  his  word,  but  only  on  condition 
that  this  princess  should  not  interfere  in  it  at  all,  and  should 
entrust  the  care  of  her  son  entirely  to  him,  which  Mme.  de  Guise 
not  being  sufficiently  disposed  to  do,  he  withdrew  his  promise,  and 
would  not  hear  it  spoken  of  again. 

After  that  we  ought  to  be  less  astonished  that  M.  de  Saint- 
Cyran  was  so  eager  to  induce  everybody  to  do  charitable  offices 
to  children,  since  he  did  not  decline  to  do  them  himself;  and 
that  he  thought  that  the  merit  and  rank  of  private  persons  did 
not  give  them  the  right  to  despise  them,  since  God  judged  them 
worthy  of  His  angels,  according  to  this  saying  of  Christ,  "Their 
angels  do  always  behold  the  face  of  my  Father  who  is  in  heaven." 

But  it  is  perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  artifices  of  the  devil  to 
have  rendered  contemptible  that  method  by  which  he  foresaw 
that  very  many  souls  might  be  rescued  from  him  by  preserving 
the  children  in  innocence.  There  are  means  of  inducing  persons 
of  every  condition  to  undertake  all  sorts  of  pious  works,  but 
simply  to  propose  this  to  them  would  seem  to  be  an  error.  No 
one  is  afraid  to  expose  them  to  the  infectious  diseases  of  prisons 
in  order  to  visit  the  prisoners,  or  to  the  vitiated  air  of  the 

1  Camper,  of  Berlin,  has  calculated  that  out  of  100  persons,  the  age 
of  70  years  is  reached  by  42  theologians,  29  lawyers,  28  artists,  27  school- 
masters and  professors,  and  24  doctors.  (MICHEL  L£VY,  Traitt  d'hygttne, 
t.  ii.  p.  872.) 


So  Port-Royal  Education. 


hospitals  in  order  to  assist  the  sick,  to  serve  the  poor,  and  to  dress 
wounds,  which  are  sometimes  loathsome  ;  and  yet  they  would 
think  they  were  lowering  themselves  and  taking  too  much  trouble 
if  they  undertook  the  education  of  a  child.  I  know  very  well 
that  everybody  is  not  fitted  for  it ;  but  if  this  gift  is  rare,  that  is 
no  reason  for  despising  it;  and  if  the  lack  of  this  gift  excludes 
many  persons,  it  would  seem  to  me  very  reasonable  that  men's 
fancies  should  not  exclude  still  more. 

I  have  sometimes  wondered  why,  when  the  profession  of  doctors 
obliges  them  to  see  so  many  foul  and  disagreeable  things,  and 
often  exposes  them  to  infected  air,  so  many,  nevertheless,  are  found 
to  adopt  it — presumably  it  is  because  men's  attachment  to  life 
makes  this  profession  honourable — and  why,  at  the  same  time, 
these  same  men  have  so  little  scruple  in  despising  that  profession 
which  can  most  contribute  to  the  eternal  salvation  of  their 
children.  .  .  .  And  I  have  in  the  same  way  been  astonished 
that  the  apostle  St.  Paul,  having  expressly  stated  that  judicial 
affairs  should  be  the  portion  of  the  inferior  persons  in  the  Church 
(1  Cor.  vi.  4),  we,  nevertheless,  see  no  one  higher  placed  now  than 
those  who  take  part  in  them,  and  that  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
successors  of  the  apostles  having  assured  us  that  the  guidance  of 
the  most  tender  soul  is  a  greater  thing  than  the  government  of  a 
world,1  we  see  no  employment  so  despised  as  this  to  which  it 
appertains  to  lay  the  foundations  of  a  good  character.2  But  it  is 
still  more  astonishing  to  see  occupations  and  offices  which  are  base 
in  themselves  so  highly  esteemed  in  princes'  houses,  such  as  those 
of  seneschal  and  master  of  the  stables,  and  that  what  has  reference 
to  the  care  and  education  of  reasonable  creatures,  who  have  been 
redeemed  by  the  blood  of  God,  is  considered  the  lowest  employ- 
ment in  nature.  Truly  we  must  acknowledge  that  men's  blindness 
is  very  great. 

1  CHANNING,  De  V education  personnelle,  p.  35:    "The  perfect  education 
of  a  child  requires  more  reflection,  and  perhaps  more  wisdom,  than  the 
government  of  a  State,  for  this  simple  reason,  that  political  interests  and 
needs  are  more  tangible,  material   and  sensible   than  the  development  of 
thought  and  feeling,  or  than  the  subtle  laws  of  the  soul,  which  should  all  be 
studied  and  understood  before  education  is  finished.  ..." 

2  "Lucian  has  said  somewhere  that  the  gods  made  schoolmasters  of  those 
whom  they  hated  ;   and  Melanchthon  has  written  an  oration  de  miseriii 
paedagogorum."  (Gui  PATIN,  Lettres,  t.  iii.  p.  140.) 


iseriis 


Lancelot :    The  Charity  of  Saint-Cyran.  81 

I  know  very  well  that  most  worldly  people  would  laugh  at  me 
if  they  saw  this.  But  let  them  laugh,  if  Thou,  0  my  God,  dost 
not  laugh  at  it.  ...  Let  them  say  what  they  will,  that  the 
world  is  ordered  thus,  that  habits  cannot  be  changed,  and  that 
men  will  never  be  induced  to  hold  in  esteem  an  employment 
which  they  have  always  despised.  Let  them  not  pretend,  then, 
to  induce  us  to  pity  them  very  much  for  misfortunes  which  often 
happen  in  their  families  for  want  of  this  esteem;  or,  rather,  let 
them  not  prevent  us  pitying  them  very  much,  since  the  love  of 
Christ  constrains  us  to  blame  this  unfortunate  habit.  .  .  . 

As  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  was  very  enlightened,  he  was  far  removed 
from  these  worldly  maxims,  and  knowing  the  importance  of  the 
care  and  education  of  the  young,  he  looked  upon  them  in  a  very 
different  manner.  However  painful  and  humiliating  these  offices 
were  in  men's  eyes,  yet  he  did  not  fail  to  employ  in  them  persons 
of  position  without  their  thinking  that  they  had  a  right  to  com- 
plain, because  they  saw  with  how  much  zeal  and  charity  he 
practised  what  he  advised  others  to  do.  For  I  have  often  seen 
him  give  lessons  to  his  nephews,  who  lived  with  him,  not  regard- 
ing them  as  his  nephews,  as  he  once  told  me,  but  as  children 
whom  he  was  endeavouring  to  bring  up  in  a  Christian  manner. 

One  day,  when  he  went  into  a  shop  to  buy  a  pair  of  stockings, 
he  saw  a  little  boy  who  seemed  to  him  very  promising.  He  was 
sorry  to  learn  that  he  was  sent  to  college,  where  he  ran  the  risk 
of  being  spoilt,  and  told  the  shopkeeper  to  send  him  to  him,  and 
that  he  would  teach  him  with  his  nephew.  He  did  so  for  some 
time,  but  the  child,  not  having  turned  out  so  well  as  he  wished, 
he  was  obliged  to  dismiss  him. 

When  he  was  in  prison  he  had  three  young  children  whom  he 
took  the  trouble  to  instruct;  and  when  he  placed  M.  d'Espinoy1 
and  M.  de  Yilleneuve  (son  of  M.  d'Andilly)  under  my  care, 
he  was  good  enough  to  tell  me  that  he  would  be  their  under- 
master,  and  that  if  God  restored  him  to  liberty  he  would  take 
them  with  him. 

1  M.  d'Espinoy,  youngest  son  of  M.  de  Saint-Ange,  head  steward  to  the 
Queen,  retired  to  Port-Royal  des  Champs  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1651, 
and  died  in  1676,  under  the  care  of  M.  de  Saci,  who  had  a  great  affection  for 
him,  says  a  note  of  Lancelot.  (Altm.  t.  i.  p.  338.) 


82  Port-Royal  Education. 

Thus  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  reduced  to  practice  his  ideas  of  things 
and  his  knowledge  of  virtue,  and  advised  others  in  this  spirit; 
for  when  M.  Singlin  first  submitted  himself  to  him  he  was 
delighted  with  the  proposition  that  he  made  to  him  to  devote 
himself  to  children,  and  destined  him  for  this  employment,  for 
which  he  had  told  me  that  God  had  sent  him  to  him.  Long  before 
this  he  had  given  his  nephew,  M.  de  Barcos,  to  M.  d'Andilly,  in 
order  to  take  charge  of  his  children,  at  a  time  when  Cardinal 
Kichelieu  would  have  been  glad  to  have  him.  He  entrusted 
M.  de  Saci  with  the  instruction  of  a  little  boy  who  had  been 
taken  from  him  when  he  was  in  prison,  and  for  whose  guidance 
he  wrote  him  two  beautiful  letters,  in  which  it  is  wonderful  to 
see  with  how  much  care  and  precision  he  descends  to  the  smallest 
details;  and  after  he  had  placed  this  boy  with  me  he  wished 
M.  de  Saci  to  take  charge  of  him  in  the  mornings,  because  I  was 
occupied  in  the  church.1  When  M.  Arnauld  placed  himself 
under  his  direction,  he  proposed  to  him  to  undertake  the  charge 
of  a  young  marquis  who  gave  signs  of  wishing  to  retire  from  the 
world.  In  fine,  we  know  that  he  set  everybody,  on  every  oppor- 
tunity, to  this  employment.  .  .  .  (Lancelot,  Memoires  touchant 
la  vie  de  M.  de  Saint-Cyran,  t.  ii.  p.  330.) 

SAINT-CYRAN'S  LITERARY  THEORY. 

If  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  had  a  great  desire  to  see  truth  defended, 
he  was  not  less  particular  about  the  manner  in  which  he  wished 
its  defence  to  be  conducted.  What  he  has  written  on  the  subject 
in  various  letters  2  would  almost  dispense  me  from  speaking  of  it 
here  if  I  did  not  consider  this  point  very  important,  and  had  not 
learnt  from  him  several  things  on  this  subject  which  I  should 
scruple  to  omit. 

The  first  maxim  that  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  laid  down  on  that 
subject  was  that  one  should  never  write  unless  the  impulse  came 
from  God,  and  he  said  that  it  was  sometimes  more  difficult 
to  know  when  a  truth  should  be  published  or  defended  than  to 

1  Lancelot  fulfilled  the  sacristan's  duties. 

2  Chiefly  in  letters  addressed  to  M.  Arnauld,  bearing  on  the  title-page  :  A 
un  eccUsiastique  de  ses  amis.     In  vols.  ii.  and  iii.,  ed.  1679. 


Lancelot:    Saint-Cyraris  Literary   Theory.  83 

know  the  truth  itself.  Nevertheless,  he  thought  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  do  so  when  it  was  attacked  by  its  enemies,  or  there  were 
some  persons  who  desired  instruction  in  it.  He  said  that  then 
God  would  guide  our  pen  and  direct  our  steps ; *  otherwise  there 
was  nothing  more  dangerous  than  to  advance  by  oneself,  and 
that  nothing  led  more  easily  to  deception  and  error  than  such 
rashness,  whatever  natural  ability  and  learning  a  man  might 
possess.  He  showed  this  by  the  books  of  Origen,2  De  Principiis, 
in  which  he  wished  to  treat  of  questions  more  curious  than 
useful.  And  he  always  said,  Qui  a  semetipso  loquitur  gloriam 
propriam  quaerit.  (He  who  speaketh  of  himself  seeketh  his 
own  glory),  paying  attention  to  what  is  said  in  the  same  place  that 
he  only  who  submits  to  the  will  of  God  can  know  the  truth,  as  he 
who  seeks  only  this  glory  is  true  and  free  from  all  unrighteousness. 
Nor  was  it  sufficient  that  the  motive  should  be  legitimate.  M. 
de  Saint-Cyran  still  wished  that  it  should  not  be  carried  out 
in  too  solely  human  a  manner,3  as  if  it  were  only  a  question 
of  carrying  things  by  force  of  words,  or  that  God  had  need 
of  our  eloquence,  because  truth  has  need  of  no  one ;  and  after 
having  done  all  we  can,  and  all  we  think  ourselves  obliged  to 
do,  we  must  still  say,  Servi  inutiles  sumus  (St.  Luke  xvii.  10), 

1  "  I  have  often  seen  him,"  says  Lancelot,  "  after  having  soared  like  an  eagle 
while  speaking  to  us,  suddenly  stop  short,   '  not  because  I  have  nothing  to 
say,  on  the  contrary,  because  too  many  things  present  themselves  to  my 
mind  ;  and  I  look  to  God  to  know  what  is  best  for  me  to  say  to  you.'     Thus 
his  speech  as  well  as  his  reading,  in  a  word,  his  whole  life,  became  a  continual 
oblation  to  God,  neither  saying  nor  doing  anything  of  himself,  and  always 
looking  to  the  Holy  Spirit  with  deep  humility,  in  order  to  act  only  in  and  by 
Him."  (Mtmoires,  vol.  i.  p.  45.) 

2  Origen,   of  Alexandria  (185-254),  a  doctor  of  the  Church,  author  of 
Commentaries  on  Holy  Scripture,  an  Apology  for  Christianity  against  Celsus, 
a  treatise  against  heresies,  entitled  Philosophumena.     Several  of  his  opinions 
have  been  condemned. 

3  The  disciples   of   Saint-Cyran   did   not  always  follow  this  important 
advice.     Lancelot  candidly  acknowledges  it:    " Perhaps,"   said   he,    "the 
manner  in  which  we  acted  in  defence  of  the  truth  was  not  pure  enough,  and 
the  means  employed  were  too  hasty  or  ill-concerted,  or  even  too  human  .  .  . 
Sometimes  the  things  of  God  are  injured  by  too  much  action  rather  than  by 
remaining  in  humble  repose.   .  .  We  may  also  add  that  we  did  not  con- 
fine ourselves  within  the  limits  marked  out  by  M.  de  Saint-Cyran,  contenting 
ourselves  (as  he  wished)  by  showing  that  the  doctrine  that  was  followed  was 
not  that  of  M.  d'Ypres,  but  of  St.  Augustine  ;  it  was  thought  safer  to  insist 
on  the  distinction  between  law  and  fact,  for  which  we  had  contended  for  ten 
or  twelve  years. 


84  Port-Royal  Education. 

( We  are  unprofitable  servants).  Therefore  he  wished  that  in  such 
conjunctures  a  man  should  rather  consult  the  movements  of  his 
heart  than  those  of  his  mind,  in  order  to  listen  to  God  and  not  be 
led  astray  by  his  own  imagination. 

Just  as  in  order  to  derive  profit  from  the  sacred  books  we 
should  read  them  in  the  same  spirit  in  which  they  were  written, 
so,  in  order  usefully  to  defend  sacred  truths,  we  should  be 
animated  with  the  spirit  of  the  saints. 

Therefore  M.  de  Saint-Cyran  wished  men  to  write  as  they 
prayed,  that  is,  with  the  same  respect  and  submission  to  the 
Divine  Majesty.  He  recommended  men  always  to  keep  their 
hearts  attentively  fixed  on  God,  that  they  might  say  nothing  but 
what  He  inspired,  so  that  work  becoming  as  it  were  a  prayer, 
it  might  draw  down  His  blessing  on  their  labours.  For  that 
reason  his  maxims  were  that,  in  order  to  write  the  truth,  it  was 
not  so  much  necessary  to  look  to  the  moments  that  human  wisdom 
might  choose  as  to  those  suggested  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  which  it 
was  necessary  to  wait  for,  and  to  follow  the  impulse  that  it  might 
please  Him  to  give  us;  and  that  nothing  was  more  dangerous  than 
to  speak  of  God  from  memory,  or  by  a  mere  human  effort  of  our 
spirit,  and  it  was,  in  his  judgment,  far  from  being  permissible 
to  mingle  with  such  matters  our  own  interests  or  passions. 

Thus,  as  those  who  are  skilful  in  eloquence  remark  very  justly 
that  it  consists  almost  entirely  in  vividly  representing  a  picture  of 
the  thing  they  wish  to  express,  so  M.  de  Saint-Cyran,  in  a  much 
more  pointed  manner,  said  that  we  could  only  speak  usefully 
of  truth,  which  is  God  Himself,  by  following  the  idea  of  it  that 
He  impressed  on  us,  and  accompanying  it  by  the  movements  that 
it  pleased  Him  to  inspire  in  us,  when  we  were  careful  to  look  to 
Him  with  great  purity  of  heart.  Hence  it  was  that  He  did 
not  wish  men  to  waste  time  over  speech,1  and  to  take  more  tin 


1  "  I  do  not  know  who  that  Monsieur  de  Vaugelas  is  who  writes  to  you. 
seems  to  me  that  lie  has  the  humour  of  M.  de  Balzac,  whom  I  esteem  mon 
than  his  letter,  which  I  intend  to  read  in  three  days  because  I  am  otherwis 
occupied,  and  I  wish  that,  following  iny  example,  you  would  moderate  th 
passion  you  have  for  words,  of  which  the  fine  tissue  is  less  estimable  thai 
you  think."  (SAINT-CYRAN,  Lettre  d  Arnauld  d'Andilly.}  Saint-Cyran  gav< 
that  day  very  wittily  an  excellent  lesson  in  literature  to  the  grand  dpistolic1 
de  France.  But  the  Discourses  of  Balzac  are  worth  more  than  his  letter; 


Lancelot:    Saint-Cyraris  Literary   Theory.  85 


in  weighing  their  words  than  a  miser  in  weighing  his  gold  in  his 
scales,  because  nothing  more  retarded  the  movement  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  which  we  ought  to  follow.  He  said  that  this  precision  of 
speech  was  rather  fitted  for  academicians  than  for  defenders  of  the 
truth;  that  it  was  almost  enough  that  there  should  be  nothing 
that  offended  in  our  style ;  and  that  what  carried  away  readers 
most  was  the  eloquence  of  the  thoughts  and  the  purity  of 
the  movements  that  the  Spirit  of  God  impressed  on  us  when 
we  were  careful  to  keep  ourselves  in  that  sacred  union  which 
we  should  have  with  Him.  It  is  certain  that  there  is  a  secret 
in  writings  which  it  seems  we  do  not  sufficiently  know.  There  is 
a  certain  transmission  on  to  the  paper  of  the  mind  and  heart  of 
him  who  writes,1  which  is  the  cause  that  we  perceive,  so  to  say, 
his  likeness  in  the  picture  of  the  thing  that  he  represents,"  and 
that  we  feel,  in  a  certain  way,  that  mood  in  which  he  was  when 
he  wrote.  The  most  incomprehensible  thing  is  that  this  impres- 
sion remains  in  the  books  for  ages,  so  that  the  devil  lives  in 
the  books  of  the  wicked  as  well  as  in  their  souls,  and  in  the  same 
way  the  Holy  Spirit  lives  in  good  books  in  proportion  to  the  grace 
that  animated  the  soul  of  him  who  wrote  them.  And  this  shows 
that  a  man  cannot  purify  his  heart  too  much  in  order  to  speak  of 
the  things  of  God  and  of  His  sacred  truths,  and  that  we  should 
work  longer  and  more  seriously  to  mortify  our  passions  than 
to  acquire  knowledge,  when  we  find  ourselves  called  to  speak 
of  things  that  may  benefit  others.2 

The  slightest  cloud  that  is  found  in  our  heart  overflows  on  to 


and  Joubert  has  estimated  him  well :  "  One  of  our  greatest  writers,  and  the 
first  among  the  good,  if  we  take  into  account  the  order  of  time,  useful 
to  read  and  to  meditate  and  excellent  to  admire  ;  he  is  equally  fit  to  instruct 
and  to  form,  both  by  his  defects  and  his  good  qualities.  He  often  overshoots 
the  mark,  but  he  leads  to  it.  It  lies  in  the  reader's  power  to  stop  there, 
although  the  author  goes  beyond  it."  (t.  ii.  p.  181.) 

1  Pascal  said  with  more  clearness  and  force:  "When  we  see  a  natural 
style  we  are  astonished  and  delighted,  for  we  expected  to  see  an  author,  and 
we  find  a  man."  (Pensecs.} 

-  "  When  a  man  feels  himself  called  upon  to  compose  some  work  for  God," 
writes  Saint-Cyran  to  Lemaitre  on  a  project  of  Lives  of  the  Saints,  "  for 
which,  although  he  may  not  be  very  humble,  he  should  always  think 
himself  not  very  fit,  he  should  withdraw  into  himself,  humble  himself, 
lament,  and  pray.  He  must  think  of  himself  as  the  tool  and  the  pen  of 
God.  .  .  You  have  seen  in  St.  Bernard  that  he  compares  God,  with 


86  Port-Royal  Education. 


the  paper,  like  a  breath  that  dims  the  surface  of  a  mirror,  and 
the  slightest  corruption  that  we  have  will  be  like  a  gnawing 
worm,  which  will  pass  into  this  writing  and  gnaw  the  heart  of 
those  who  shall  read  it  till  the  end  of  the  world.  (Lancelot, 
Memoires,  t.  ii.  p.  127.) 


REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  CHILDREN   OF  THE  SCHOOL 
OF  LE  CHESNAI.i 

On  Rising. 

The  elder  children  rise  every  day  at  five  o'clock  winter  and 
summer,  the  younger  at  six. 

As  they  sleep  in  the  same  room,  each  master  has  no  trouble  to 
awaken  his  own  pupils. 

They  rise  quickly,  it  being  very  dangerous  to  accustom  them  to 
idling  at  the  first  hour  of  the  day. 

They  kneel  immediately  they  are  out  of  bed  to  worship  God. 

After  which  they  finish  dressing,  comb  each  other  in  great 
silence,  it  being  very  reasonable  that  their  first  words  should  be 
prayers  and  thanksgiving  to  God  for  their  preservation  during  the 
night. 

If,  however,  anyone  had  need  to  leave  the  room  he  should  ask 
permission  in  a  low  voice. 

Of  Morning  Prayer. 
At  six  o'clock  they  all  kneel  before  the  crucifix  which  is  in 

respect  to  men,  to  a  writer  or  painter  who  guides  the  hand  of  a 
little  child,  and  only  asks  the  child  not  to  move  his  hand,  but  to  let  it 
be  guided.  .  .  It  is,  then,  the  writer  and  not  the  child  who  writes,  and 
it  would  be  ridiculous  for  the  child  to  be  vain  of  what  he  had  done.  .  . 
Holding  these  sentiments,  we  grow  at  once  in  virtue  and  knowledge.  We 
acquire  wonderful  strength,  and  throw  an  odour  of  piety  over  the  work,  which 
first  strikes  the  author  and  then  those  who  read  it."  (FONTAINE,  Mem.  t.  ii. 
p.  51.) 

1  A  small  village  a  quarter  of  a  league  from  Versailles.  The  house 
belonged  to  M.  de  Bernieres,  one  of  the  most  active  and  generous  friends 
of  Port-Royal  ;  he  sold  his  office  of  maitre  des  requetes  in  order  to  devote 
his  time  and  fortune  to  the  relief  of  the  poor  in  the  provinces  of  Normandy, 
Picardy,  and  Champagne.  His  connection  with  Mme.  de  Longueville  and 
Port-Royal  caused  his  exile  to  Issoudun,  where  he  died  in  1662.  (See  notice 
of  him,  BESOGNE,  Hist,  de  Port-Eoyal,  t.  iv.  p.  143.) 


De  Beaupuis :    Regulations  for  Children.  87 

the  room,  and  repeat  the  usual  prayers,  namely,  the  Veni  Creator, 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Ave-Maria,  and  the  Creed. 

Then  follows  Prime  for  the  elder  scholars,  who  all  remain 
standing  during  the  repetition  of  this  prayer. 

After  this  is  finished  each  goes  to  his  table  to  study  his  lesson 
and  write  his  composition,  and  they  remain  there  in  great  silence 
until  seven  o'clock.  At  seven  repetition  of  lessons,  which  lasts 
until  breakfast. 

Of  Breakfast. 

They  breakfast  about  eight  o'clock. 

During  this  time,  which  lasts  a  good  half -hour,  they  are  at 
liberty  to  converse  aloud  with  one  another  on  what  subject  they 
like,  or  to  read  some  history,  or  look  at  maps,  &c.  They  do  not, 
however,  leave  the  room.  In  winter  they  are  round  the  fire. 

After  breakfast,  each  goes  back  silently  to  his  table,  to  work  at 
his  second  lesson  until  ten  o'clock. 

This  second  lesson  consists,  for  the  elder  scholars,  in  repeating 
their  Greek  lesson,  which  they  translate  into  French,  or  reading 
their  Latin  composition.  The  Greek  lesson  is  usually  three  pages 
of  Plutarch,  in  folio,  in  the  morning  and  as  much  in  the  after- 
noon; for  the  juniors,  translation  of  Livy,  Justin,  Severus 
Sulpicius,  &c. 

The  second  lesson  lasts  until  eleven  o'clock,  which  is  the 
dinner  hour. 

Of  Mass. 

They  do  not  go  to  mass  every  day,  especially  the  juniors,  until 
they  are  sufficiently  advanced  for  it ;  for  great  care  is  taken  that 
they  are  well-behaved  in  church,  and  do  not  look  about  them. 
Two  are  usually  sent  to  make  the  responses,  which  they  do  in 
turn. 

As  on  this  occasion  they  fulfil  the  office  of  the  angels,  they  are 
exhorted  to  behave  with  great  respect,  and  to  present  themselves 
at  this  bloodless  sacrifice  of  Jesus  Christ  in  remembrance  of  that 
which  He  offered  to  His  Father  for  our  sins  on  Mount  Calvary. 

If  the  seniors  commit  any  fault  they  are  reprimanded,  and 
especially  as,  being  more  advanced  in  age,  they  should  be  wiser, 
and  edify  the  others  by  their  example. 


Port-Royal  Education. 


Of  Grace  before  Meat. 

At  eleven  o'clock  they  all  assemble  in  one  of  the  rooms,  where 
they  make  an  examination  of  conscience,  after  having  said  the 
Confiteor  as  far  as  Mea  Culpa.  After  the  examination  is  ended 
they  finish  the  remainder  with  the  prayer. 

One  of  the  seniors  repeats  by  heart  a  Latin  sentence  taken 
from  the  Proverbs.  They  then  go  down  to  wash  their  hands  and 
go  into  the  refectory. 

Of  the  Dinner. 

The  children  are  seated  beside  and  in  front  of  their  own 
master,  who  distributes  to  them  what  has  been  served  up,  after 
they  have  eaten  their  soup  each  in  his  own  porringer.1 

They  endeavour  to  accustom  them  not  to  affect  an  inconvenient 
delicacy,  and  always  to  eat  with  propriety. 

During  dinner  all  sorts  of  histories  are  read,  as  the  History  of 
the  Jews  by  Josephus,  Church  History  by  M.  Godeau,  History  of 
France,  Koman  History  and  such  like.  Nothing  has  been  so 
useful,  and  it  is  surprising  that  the  children  who  are  busy  eating 
lose  scarcely  anything  of  what  is  read. 

On  feast-days  and  Sundays  books  of  piety  are  read,  such  as 
some  of  the  fine  translations  that  have  been  made,  the  Christian 
Instructions,  the  Confessions  of  St.  Augustine,  and  others  like 
them. 

Of  Recreation  after  Dinner. 

One  of  the  masters,  who  never  loses  sight  of  the  children,  is 
always  present;  but  his  presence  does  not  incommode  them  in 
any  way,  because  he  gives  them  entire  liberty  to  play  at  the 
games  which  they  like  to  choose;  this  is  always  done  with 

1  A  song  of  M.  de  Coulanges  teaches  us  that  this  custom  was  quite  recent. 
Advice  to  Fathers : 

Formerly  they  ate  their  soup 

Without  ceremony  from  the  dish, 

And  often  wiped  the  spoon 

On  the  boiled  fowl ; 

Formerly  in  the  fricassee 

They  dipped  their  bread  and  their  fingers, 

Now  each  one  eats 

His  soup  in  his  plate. 


De  Beaitpnis  :    Regulations  for  Children.  89 

modesty  and  good  manners,  and  as  the  close  in  which  they  play 
is  very  large,  they  can  choose  their  walks. 

In  summer,  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  they  usually  walk  in 
the  shade  of  the  woods. 

In  winter  they  exercise  themselves  in  running,  or  retire  to  a 
large  room,  and  as  there  is  a  good  billiard  table  in  it,  when  they 
have  warmed  themselves  some  stop  at  it,  others  like  better  to 
play  at  backgammon,  draughts,  chess,  or  cards. 

These  cards  were  a  certain  pack  which  embraced  the  history  of 
the  first  six  centuries  j1  that  is  to  say,  the  time  and  place  in  which 
the  chief  councils  were  held,  in  which  the  popes,  emperors, 
eminent  saints,  and  profane  authors  lived,  and  in  which 
the  most  memorable  events  of  the  world  happened.  By 
constantly  playing  this  little  game,  the  greater  number  had 
these  things  so  impressed  on  their  mind,  and  the  circumstances 
of  the  different  times  and  places  in  which  these  great  men  lived, 
that  no  doctor  could  speak  on  them  more  pertinently.  What  M. 
de  Sainte-Beuve2  often  wondered  at,  after  having  put  it  to  the 
proof,  was  what  gave  these  lads,  of  whom  the  greater  number  had 
not  yet  reached  the  age  of  sixteen  or  seventeen,  such  a  great  and 
wide  knowledge  of  all  things,  of  all  the  countries  of  the  world, 
and  of  periods  of  time,  that  they  were  able  to  converse  agreeably 
with  all  sorts  of  persons,  to  study  all  sorts  of  affairs,  and  even  to 
explain  them. 

No  disputes  or  contentions  were  ever  seen  among  them  upon 
any  matter.  They  had  been  so  accustomed  to  respect  one  another 
that  they  never  used  the  familiar  "  thou,"  and  were  never  heard 
to  utter  the  least  word  that  they  might  think  would  be  disagree- 
able to  any  of  their  companions. 

Kecreation  usually  lasted  a  good  hour  and  a  half. 

1  The  pack  was  composed  of  52  cards.     When,  for  instance,  those  relating 
to  the  popes  had  been  dealt,  he  who  had  in  his  hand  the  longest  pontificate 
gained,  and  if  he  recited  correctly  the  information  given  on  his  card  he  took 
a  counter. 

2  Jacques  de  Sainte-Beuve  (1613-1677),  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  a 
great  friend  of  Port-Royal.     He  would  not  subscribe  the  censure  pronounced 
against  Arnauld,   was   excluded   from   the  Faculty,   and  lost   his   chair  of 
theology  (1658).       Nicole   had   been   his  pupil.      Sainte-Beuve,   however, 
eagerly  signed  the  formulary  in  1661,  and  refused  all  intercourse  with  the 
nuns  of  Port-Royal. 


9O  Port-Royal  Education. 

On  holidays  they  left  the  close  and  went  towards  Marly, 
Versailles,  and  Saint-Cyr  (the  building  of  Versailles  was  not 
yet  commenced1). 

During  these  walks  the  children  conversed  familiarly  and  gaily 
with  the  masters  upon  all  subjects,  which  formed  their  minds  in  a 
remarkable  manner. 

After  recreation  they  repeated  alternately  what  they  had  read 
in  history  or  talked  about  geography. 

As  children  have  good  memories,  they  noticed  the  smallest  facts 
of  history,  so  that  when  the  seniors  began  to  talk  first  the  juniors 
always  said  something  on  the  subject,  and  thus  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  speak  in  good  terms  and  to  form  an  opinion  on  the  facts 
mentioned  in  the  history  which  had  been  read.  In  fine,  by 
making  them  pass  their  early  years  in  these  kinds  of  exercises, 
the  teachers  endeavoured  to  put  them  in  a  position  to  render 
jservice  to  God  and  the  public  when  they  should  be  grown  up. 

Of  the  Return  to  the  Glass-room  in  the  Afternoon. 

On  entering  they  said  a  short  prayer,  to  ask  for  the  grace  of 
God  to  pass  the  rest  of  the  day  in  a  godly  manner,  and  to 
accustom  them  to  do  no  action  without  beginning  and  ending 
by  prayer. 

Each  being  at  his  table,  they  began  to  work ;  some  wrote  their 
copy,  which  was  always  some  sentence  taken  from  the  Holy 
Scripture,  and  the  others  copied  their  notes  on  Virgil. 

Others  prepared2  their  lessons  or  read  some  good  book.  That 
lasted  until  afternoon  refreshment,  which  was  regularly  brought 
them  at  three  o'clock ;  it  lasted  a  good  half-hour,  during  which 
they  were  at  liberty  to  converse  with  one  another  as  they  did 
f  during  breakfast.  This  refreshment  was  thought  necessary  for 
the  juniors  on  account  of  their  greater  natural  activity.  The 
others  might  go  without  it  if  they  wished. 

1  It  was  not  until  after  1672  that  Louis  XIV.  passed  a  large  part  of  the 
year  at  Versailles,  and  only  fixed  his  residence  there  in  1682.    The  Court  was 
then  at  Paris,  which  it  left  for  Saint-Germain  in  1661. 

2  An   excellent  practice,    which  involves  individual    initiative,   permits 
greater  benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  lessons,  and  singularly  facilitates 
the  taking  of  notes. 


De  Beaupuis :    Regulations  for  Children.  91 

.  At  half-past  three  all  took  their  places  at  their  tables  to  study 
their  lessons,  which  they  repeated  from  four  to  six  o'clock,  when 
they  supped. 

[  Kecreation  was  the  same  as  after  dinner. 

'  In  summer  opportunity  was  often  taken  of  conversing  during 
this  time  with  the  seniors  on  some  points  of  history  or  on  other 
useful  subjects,  while  the  juniors  amused  themselves  with  games. 

This  recreation  lasted  till  eight  o'clock.  They  then  returned  to 
pass  a  good  half -hour  in  the  class-room  in  preparing  what  they  had 
to  do  for  the  next  morning. 

Evening  Prayer. 

Evening  prayer  was  said  at  half-past  eight,  when  they  repeated 
the  Pater-noster,  Credo,  and  Confiteor  in  Latin,  the  litanies  of  the 
Virgin,  Sub  tuum  praesidium,  &c. 

Then,  after  examination  of  conscience,  each  returned  to  his 
room  in  silence. 

Of  going  to  Bed. 

After  saying  his  prayers,  each  undressed  and  got  into  bed 
quickly  and  in  silence. 

Thus  all  were  in  bed  at  nine  o'clock. 

As  all  the  exercises  of  the  day  were,  in  this  manner,  regulated 
and  diversified,  the  children  had  no  time  to  become  wearied ;  and 
the  greatest  punishment  that  could  be  given  to  those  who  some- 
times showed  a  disagreeable  humour  was  to  threaten  to  send  them 
home,  as  I  have  already  said. 

Directions  for  Sundays  and  Holy-days. 

They  rose  at  five  o'clock  as  usual. 

After  they  were  dressed  Prime  was  said ;  after  which  they 
read  privately  some  pious  books,  until  they  all  assembled  to  go  to 
catechising,  which  lasted  until  the  bell  rang  for  mass. 

They  always  had  to  learn  by  heart  two  or  three  articles  of  the 
catechism  of  M.  de  Saint-Cyran,  which  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best 
that  have  been  written. 

The  teachers  always  began  by  making  the  juniors  repeat  what 


92  Port-Royal  Education. 

had  been  said  the  last  time,  in  order  to  impress  it  well  on  theu 
memory. 

They  always  had  to  hear  high  mass  at  the  parish  church ;  for  i\ 
is  necessary  to  accustom  children  of  good  family  early  to  submit 
to  the  order  which  has  been  established  in  the  Church,  and  which 
has  been  followed  during  a  long  succession  of  ages.1  For,  thinking 
only  of  amusing  ourselves,  feasting  and  paying  visits  after  having 
been  to  hear  low  mass,  as  quickly  as  possible,  is  not  sanctifying 
the  Sunday  ....  (Supplement  au  Necrologe,  p.  54.) 

A  LETTER  FROM  M.  LE  MAITRE  DE  SACI 
TO  ONE  OF  HIS  FRIENDS. 

PATIENCE   AND    SILENCE. 

It  seems  to  me,  Sir,  that  if  I  were  allowed  to  choose  an 
employment,  I  should  readily  desire  yours,  so  much  do  I  esteem 
it,  and  think  you  happy  to  have  devoted  yourself  to  it.  I  am 
convinced  that  there  is  no  occupation  equal  to  yours,  nor  one 
more  worthy  of  a  Christian,  when  it  is  undertaken  from  pure 
love.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  Jesus  Christ  has  commended 
it  to  us,  and  that,  in  order  to  oblige  us  still  more  to  acquit 
ourselves  well  in  it,  He  exhorts  us  to  become  as  children,  and 
assures  us  that  we  must  do  so  in  order  to  enter  paradise. 

Children   whose   nature   is   good   and   docile  render  their  in- 

1  This  is  one  of  the  grievances  of  Father  Rapin  in  an  interest  that  he  does 
not  conceal :  "  At  Port-Royal  they  only  recommended  the  worship  at  the 
parish  church  and  the  spiritual  direction  of  the  cures,  who  were  called 
the  true  pastors  because  they  wished  to  acknowledge  their  position  in  order 
to  obtain  their  favour.  This  notion  became  then  so  fashionable,  that  even  in 
the  freest  and  most  polite  society  they  laughed  at  ladies  who  confessed  to 
the  regular  clergy  as  not  belonging  to  the  hierarchy  ....  Nothing  so 
much  lowered  the  esteem  in  which  the  religious  orders  were  held,  and  which 
it  was  desired  to  annihilate  in  order  to  destroy  the  Jesuits,  and  nothing  more 
tended  to  raise  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  and  everything  that  related  to  the 
parishes  which  had  been  formerly  so  despised,  that  even  the  most  important 
parishes  in  Paris  were  abandoned  to  Picards,  Normans,  and  Manceaux  as 
being  posts  unworthy  of  men  of  position  ....  It  was,  properly  speaking, 
the  scheming  of  the  janseiiists  that  set  in  fashion  this  spirit  of  parochialism 
which  afterwards  dominated  Paris,  and  by  which  the  beneficed  clergy 
became  so  important,  that  they  made  themselves  dreaded  by  the  great, 
respected  by  the  lower  classes,  and  held  in  honour  by  everybody."  (Memoires, 
t.  i.  p.  484.) 


De  Sad:    Letter  on  Education.  93 

-truction  easier  and  more  agreeable;  but  the  others,  who  try 
W  patience  more,  also  give  reason  to  deserve  more.1  It  is 
iecessary  to  labour  to  root  out  in  them  the  works  of  the  old 
nan,  and  that  is  done  better  by  actions  and  example  than  by 
exhortations,  which  are  not  of  much  use  to  children  unless  they 
are  few,  short,  and  adapted  to  their  age,  and  appear  to  spring  | 
from  particular  circumstances  rather  than  from  a  general  intention  $ 
to  exhort  and  reprove  them.  Children  are  not  usually  so  capable 
of  being  taught  by  reason  as  by  the  senses  and  habit  which 
insensibly  impress  on  them  the  spirit  of  modesty  and  humility, 
the  love  of  heavenly  things  and  contempt  of  earthly  things, 
especially  when  those  who  guide  them  are  careful  to  unite  the 
spirit  of  prayer  to  their  work,  and  to  offer  them  every  day  to 
God,  remembering  that  he  who  plants  and  he  who  waters  is 
nothing,  and  that  it  is  God  alone  who,  possessing  all  power, 
thus  produces  the  result.  As  the  chief  end  of  education  should 
be  to  save  them  and  ourselves  with  them,  we  must  also  have 
more  trust  in  Him  who  is  the  true  Saviour  and  Master  than 
in  all  human  means  and  industry,  considering  ourselves  as 
instruments,  which  can  have  no  movement  except  what  He 
gives  them,  that  He  may  thus  shed  His  blessing  on  the  scholars 
through  the  masters.  That  is  all  the  desire  of  my  heart,  for 
the  children  as  much  as  for  yourself.  If  you  see  any  good  in 
them,  praise  God  for  it,  who  has  put  it  in  them,  but  let  it  be 
in  secret,  and  be  careful  to  speak  little  of  it ; 2  if,  on  the  contrary, 
you  find  that  there  is  much  to  do,  do  not  despair,  remembering 
their  age. 


1  Fontaine,  who  has  reproduced  the  principal  passages  of  this  letter,  and 
commented  on  them,  adds  some  ideas  worthy  of  note  :  "M.  de  Saci  always 
gave  this  advice,  not  to  undertake  the  charge  of  other  children  than  those 
of  respectable  parents."  Education  at  Port- Royal,  as  with  Montaigne, 
Rabelais,  Locke,  and  Rousseau,  preserves  an  aristocratic  character.  The 
large  heart  of  Pestalozzi  will  be  devoted  to  those  who  have  the  greatest  need 
of  education — the  poor  and  neglected. 

1  It  requires,  in  fact,  much  tact  and  discretion  to  praise  without  exciting 
the  bad  feeling  of  vanity.  De  Saci,  perhaps,  uses  too  much  reserve ;  we, 
on  the  contrary,  misuse  publicity.  Why  insert  in  our  scholastic  journals 
that  a  child  found  a  purse  and  did  not  keep  it  ?  A  simple  act  of  honesty 
is  praised  as  an  act  of  heroism.  Let  us  reserve  our  public  acknowledgments 
for  acts  of  courage  and  devotion. 


94  Port-Royal  Education. 

}  Every  day  we  see  those  degenerate  who  were  good  in  their 
childhood ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  those  in  whom  we  saw  nothin  g 
good  when  they  were  children  improve  as  they  grow  oldei". 
They  are  like  the  young  wheat,  which  often  produces  more  oir 
less  than  was  expected.  We  must  not  be  too  uneasy  aboujt 
'their  faults,  or  too  precise  in  marking  them.1  If  there  is  any?- 
conduct  which  it  is  necessary  to  feign  not  to  notice,  it  is  that, 
of  children  whom  we  should  be  satisfied  to  reprove  for  serious 
faults,  closing  our  eyes  to  others,  although  they  may  not  appear 
small.  It  is  sufficient  not  to  encourage  them  by  too  much' 
indulgence  in  excessive  liberty;  and,  for  the  rest,  we  must, 
work  little  by  little,  and  with  reference  to  one  thing  at  a  time, 
to  cure  them,  having  towards  them  an  untiring  charity ;  otherwise j 
we  give  ourselves  great  trouble,  and  do  them  no  good,  we  even 
sour  their  tempers  by  too  frequent  and  injudicious  reproofs.  We 
must  endeavour  to  instil  into  them  some  feelings  of  piety  and 
the  fear  of  God  ....  We  must  make  the  most  of  the 
confidence  that  they  have  in  those  who  guide  them,  and  en- 
courage it,  in  order  to  use  it  for  their  salvation.  When  it  is 
necessary  to  reprove  and  warn  them,  it  should  be  well  considered, 
in  order  not  to  discourage  them.  By  overlooking  some  of  their 
faults  we  correct  others  which  are  of  more  consequence;  and 
we  provide  against  the  small  irregularities  that  we  wish  to  / 
prevent  in  children  more  by  prayer  than  by  words.  Then  God  J 
shows  us  when  it  is  time  to  speak  to  them,  and  most  frequently 
we  find  that  there  was  nothing  to  be  said.  We  can  only  under- 
stand these  tender  souls  by  adapting  ourselves  to  them,  and 
conforming  ourselves  to  their  inclinations;  otherwise  they  do 
not  understand  our  words,  and  this  imposes  on  us  the  need 
of  continual  prayer  and  attention  both  for  ourselves  and  them, 
not  telling  them  all  they  should  do,  but  only  as  much  as  their 
weakness,  for  which  we  should  have  great  regard  and  con- 
sideration, can  bear.  We  should  not  exercise  authority  over 
them  untempered  by  charity,  adapting  ourselves  in  such  a 
manner  to  them,  that  it  is  they  who  draw  the  conclusion,  and 

1  This  language  is  truer  and  more  simple  than  that  of  Saint-Cyran,  who 
speaks  too  much  of  "trembling"  and  of  "  tempest  of  the  mind." 


De  Sad:   Letter  on  Education.  95 

do  by  persuasion  what  is  demanded  of  them.1  When  we  see 
that  they  cannot  submit,  we  should  retire  and  feign  not  to  notice! 
leaving  them  with  a  few  imperfections  for  a  time,  rather  than^ 
forcing  their  will,  by  which  we  gain  nothing,  and  which  might) 
even  irritate  them. 

Above  all,  they  should  never  be  left  alone;  and  whether  they 
are  studying,  playing,  or  doing  anything  else,  we  should  always 
be  witnesses,  either  by  ourselves  or  by  grave  persons  to  whom  we 
entrust  this  duty,  of  all  their  actions. 

In  fine,  there  are  no  virtues  that  should  be  more  practised 
with  children  than  patience  and  silence,  avoiding,  by  patience, 
hasty  reproof,  and  taking  care,  by  cultivating  silence,  to  say  no 
more  than  they  can  bear. 

Jesus  Christ  often  withdrew  Himself  from  His  disciples  to 
tpray  to  His  Father,  in  order  not  to  be  obliged  constantly  to 
reprove  them,  as  their  imperfect  condition  often  gave  Him 
reason  to  do.  Thus  you  would  do  well  to  take  for  a  motto 
these  two  words,  Patience  and  silence,  and  this  verse  of  the 
Psalmist,  Adhaereat  lingua  faucibus  meis,  desiring  that  your 
words  should  cleave  to  your  mouth  rather  than  that  any  should 
drop  which  might  wound  the  children.  (LECLERC,  Vies  inter- 
essantes,  t.  iv.  p.  351.) 


PASCAL  AT  PORT-ROYAL.2 

M.  Pascal  came,  at  that  time,  to  live  at  Port-Royal  des  Champs. 
I  do  not  stop  to  tell  who  this  man  was,  whom  not  only  all  France 
but  all  Europe  admired.  His  active  mind,  always  at  work,  had 
a  breadth,  elevation,  firmness,  penetration,  and  clearness  beyond 
anything  that  can  be  imagined.  There  was  no  adept  in  mathe- 
matics who  did  not  yield  to  him,  as  witness  the  story  of  the 


1  This  is,  in  fact,  true  education  ;  education  from  within  and  not  from 
without,  by  the  association  of  the  pupil  with  the  master,  and  by  his  personal 
influence  on  himself.     Without  this  condition  education  is  but  a  very  super- 
ficial work,  without  real  efficacity. 

2  "  I  can  scarcely  believe,"  observes  Sainte-Beuve  with  reason,  "that  the 
fine  conversation  between  Pascal  and  M.  de  Saci  on  Epictetus  and  Montaigne 
is  not  the  compilation  of  M.  Lemaitre  himself."  (Port-Royal,  t.  i.  p.  395.) 


96  Port-Royal  Education. 

famous  roulette,1  which  was  then  the  subject  of  conversation  of 
all  the  learned.  He  could  animate  copper  and  put  mind  into 
brass.  He  brought  it  about  that  little  wheels  without  reason,  on 
each  of  which  were  the  first  ten  figures,  should  give  a  reason  to 
the  most  reasonable  persons ;  and,  in  a  manner,  he  made  dumb 
machines  speak,  to  solve,  in  working,  the  difficulties  in  numbers 
which  puzzle  the  learned  \  and  this  cost  him  so  much  application 
and  effort  of  mind,  that  to  arrange  that  machine  to  the  point  at 
which  everyone  admired  it,  and  which  I  have  seen  with  my  own 
eyes,  his  own  head  was  almost  deranged  during  three  years.  This 
wonderful  man,  being  at  last  touched  by  God,  submitted  this 
eminent  mind  to  the  yoke  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  this  grand  an(l 
noble  heart  humbly  submitted  to  penance.  He  came  to  Pari  s 
to  throw  himself  into  the  arms  of  M.  Singlin,  resolved  to  d(V 
whatever  he  ordered  him. 

M.  Singlin  thought,  on  seeing  this  great  genius,  that  he  should 
do  well  to  send  him  to  Port-Royal  des  Champs,  where  M.  Arnauldj 
would  measure  his  strength  with  him  in  what  regarded  the  other1 
sciences,2  and  M.  de  Saci  would  teach  him  to  despise  them.  He 
came,  then,  to  live  at  Port-Royal.  M.  de  Saci  could  not  excuse; 
himself  from  seeing  him,  especially  as  he  was  requested  to  do  so 
by  M.  Singlin ;  but  the  sacred  light  that  he  found  in  the 
Scriptures  and  the  Fathers  made  him  hope  that  he  should  not 
be  dazzled  with  the  brilliancy  of  M.  Pascal,  which,  nevertheless, 
charmed  and  carried  away  everybody.  He  was  strongly  impressed 
with  the  force  of  all  he  said.  He  admitted  with  pleasure  the 
strength  of  his  reasonings,  but  he  learnt  nothing  new  from  them. 
All  that  Pascal  told  him  that  was  grand  he  had  seen  before  in 
St.  Augustine ;  and,  doing  justice  to  everybody,  he  said :  "  M. 
Pascal  is  very  estimable  in  that,  not  having  read  the  Fathers 
of  the  Church,  he  has  of  himself,  by  the  penetration  of  his  mind, 
discovered  the  same  truths  that  they  did.  He  thinks  them 

1  The  roulette  or  cycloid  is  the  name  given  to  the  curve  described  by  a 
point  in  a  circumference  rolling  on  a  straight  line.     This  problem  very  much 
occupied   the  learned  in   the  seventeenth   century.      Descartes,    Roberval, 
Father  Mersenne,  Torricelli,  Fermat,  Huyghens,  &c.,  made  it  the  object  of 
their  studies. 

2  Bossuet  calls  Arnauld  "a  man  eminent  in  every  kind  of  knowledge." 
((Etivres,  t.  ix.  p.  451.) 


Fontaine  :   Epictettis  and  Montaigne.  97 

surprising,  because  he  has  not  seen  them  anywhere  ;  but,  for 
our  part,  we  are  accustomed  to  see  them  everywhere  in  our 
books.  .  .  ." 

It  was  a  habit  of  M.  de  Saci,  in  conversing  with  people,  to 
adapt  his  conversation  to  those  with  whom  he  was  speaking.  If, 
for  instance,  he  saw  M.  Champagne,1  he  spoke  to  him  of  painting. 
If  he  saw  M.  Hamon,2  he  conversed  with  him  about  medicine. 
If  he  saw  the  surgeon  of  the  place,  he  questioned  him  about 
surgery.  Those  who  cultivated  trees,  the  vine,  or  grain,  told 
him  what  he  should  observe.  He  used  everything  as  an  occasion 
to  speak  of  God  and  to  lead  others  to  Him.  He  thought,  then, 
that  he  ought  to  take  M.  Pascal  on  his  strong  point,  and  to  speak 
to  him  of  the  reading  of  philosophy,  in  which  he  was  most 
occupied.  He  led  him  to  this  subject  in  the  first  conversations 
they  had  together.  M.  Pascal  told  him  that  the  two  books  he 
usually  read  had  been  Epictetus  and  Montagne,  and  highly 
praised  these  two  intellects.  M.  de  Saci,  who  had  always  thought 
he  ought  to  read  these  authors  very  little,  begged  him  to  make 
him  acquainted  with  them. 

"Epictetus,"3  said  M.  Pascal,  "is  one  of  the  men  of  the  world 
who  has  best  known  the  duties  of  man.  He  wishes  him  before 
all  things  to  look  upon  God  as  his  chief  object,  to  be  persuaded 
that  He  does  everything  with  justice,  to  submit  to  Him  heartily, 
to  follow  Him  willingly  in  everything,  because  He  does  everything 


1  Philippe  de  Champagne   (1602-1674),    "this  jansenist  Poussin,"  says 
Theophile  Gautier,  who  points  out  in  the  gallery  of  the  Louvre   "that 
singular  and  characteristic  painting  in  which  we  see  Sister  Sainte-Suzanne 
(the  daughter  of  Ph.  de  Champagne  and  a  nun  of  Port-Royal)  sitting  with 
her   feet  stretched   out  on  a  stool,   her  hands  joined,  while  the   Al other 
Catherine  Agnes  Arnauld,  on  her  knees,  implores  of  heaven  the  healing 
of  the  sick  woman,  who  was,  in  fact,  restored  to  health,  as  the  inscription 
on  the  picture  states.     When  we  have  seen  this  picture,"  he  adds,   "we 
know  Port- Royal  as  well  as  if  we  had  read  the  voluminous  work  of  Sainte- 
Beuve."  (Guide  de  T amateur  au  musee  du  Louvre,  p.  158.)   Two  chefs-d'oeuvre 
of  this  painter  are  exhibited  in  the  salon  d'honneur,  namely,  Christ  lying  in 
His  shroud,  and  a  portrait  of  Richelieu. 

2  See  note,  p.  243. 

8  Epictetus,  a  Greek  Stoic  philosopher  of  the  first  century  after  Christ. 
Abstain,  be  resigned,  were  the  two  principles  of  his  morality.  See  the  study 
of  M.  Martha  on  Stoic  virtue,  personified  in  that  slave  who  honours  humanity 
as  much  as  the  wise  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius.  (Les  moralistes  sous  V empire 
romain,  p.  155.) 


98  Port-Royal  Education. 

with  great  wisdom;  that  thus  this  disposition  will  stop  all  his 
complaints  and  murmurings,  and  prepare  his  heart  to  support  the 
most  painful  occurrences.  Never  say,  he  said,  I  have  lost  that, 
but  rather  I  have  returned  it ;  my  wife  is  dead,  but  I  have  given 
her  back ;  and  thus  of  goods  and  everything  else.  But  he  who 
takes  'it  from  me  is  a  wicked  man,  you  say.  Why  do  you  trouble 
yourself  through  whom  He  who  lent  it  to  you  comes  to  demand 
it  again  f1  While  He  allows  you  the  use  of  it,  take  care  of  it 
as  of  a  good  that  belongs  to  another,  as  a  man  who  is  travelling 
looks  upon  himself  in  an  inn.  You  ought  not  to  wish,  said  he, 
that  things  which  happen  should  happen  as  you  desire,  but 
you  ought  to  wish  them  to  happen  as  they  do.  Eemember, 
said  he,  that  you  are  here  like  an  actor,  and  that  you  play 
your  part  in  a  comedy,  such  as  it  pleases  the  Master  to  give 
you.  Eemain  on  the  stage  as  long  as  He  wishes,  and  appear 
rich  or  poor  as  He  commands.  Your  business  is  to  play  the 
part  that  He  gives  you  well,  but  the  choice  of  the  part  is  another's 
business.  Always  keep  before  your  eyes  death  and  the  ills  which 
seem  the  most  insupportable,  and  you  will  never  think  of  any- 
thing low,  nor  desire  anything  inordinately. 

"He  shows  in  a  thousand  ways  what  man  should  do.  He 
wishes  him  to  be  humble,  to  hide  his  good  resolutions,  above 
all  in  their  initial  stages,  and  to  accomplish  them  in  secret. 
Nothing  ruins  them  more  than  showing  them.  He  never  tires 
of  repeating  that  all  the  study  and  desire  of  man  should  be  to 
recognize  the  will  of  God  and  to  follow  it.2 

"You  see  here,  Sir,  the  intelligence  of  this  great  man  who 
understood  so  well  the  duty  of  man,  and  I  dare  to  say  that  he 
would  deserve  to  be  worshipped  if  he  had  known  equally  well 
his  impotence,  since  it  would  be  necessary  to  be  God  to  teach 
both  these  things  to  men.  Thus,  as  he  was  dust  and  ashes,  after 
having  so  well  comprehended  what  ought  to  be  done,  this  is  how 
he  loses  himself  in  the  presumption  of  what  can  be  done.  He 


1  This  is  really  showing  too  much  resignation.  Would  not  this  sort  of 
fatalism  put  at  their  ease  assassins  and  robbers,  transformed  into  agents 
of  Providence  ? 

2  "  To  will  what  God  wills  is  the  only  science 
That  gives  us  repose." — MALHERBE. 


Fontaine :  Epictetus  and  Montaigne.  99 

said  that  God  has  given  to  every  man  the  means  of  fulfilling  all 
his  obligations ;  that  these  means  are  always  in  our  power ;  that 
we  must  only  seek  happiness  through  the  things  which  are  always 
in  our  power,  since  God  has  given  them  to  us  for  this  end ;  that 
we  must  consider  what  is  free  in  us;  that  goods,  life,  and  esteem 
are  not  in  our  power  and  do  not  lead  to  God,  but  that  the  mind 
cannot  be  forced  to  believe  what  it  knows  to  be  false,  nor  the  will 
to  love  what  it  knows  must  make  it  unhappy;  that  these  two 
powers  are  entirely  free,  and  that  by  them  alone  we  can  make 
ourselves  perfect;  that  man,  by  these  powers,  can  thoroughly 
know  God,  love  Him,  obey  Him,  please  Him,  cure  himself  of 
all  his  vices,  acquire  all  virtues  and  thus  make  himself  holy  and 
a  companion  of  God.  These  principles,  which  spring  from  a 
diabolical  pride,  lead  him  to  other  errors;  for  example,  that  the 
soul  is  a  part  of  the  divine  substance,  that  pain  and  death  are  not 
evils,  that  we  may  kill  ourselves  when  we  are  so  persecuted  that 
we  may  believe  God  summons  us,  &c. 

"  As  to  Montagne,  Sir,  of  whom  you  wish  me  to  speak  to  you, 
being  born  in  a  Christian  state,  he  professed  the  Catholic  religion, 
and  in  that  there  is  nothing  peculiar.  But  as  he  wished  to  find 
a  morality  founded  on  reason  without  the  light  of  faith,  he  took 
his  principles  on  this  supposition;  and  thus  considering  man 
deprived  of  all  revelation,  he  discourses  in  this  manner.  He 
puts  everything  in  universal  doubt,  and  so  general  that  this  doubt 
doubts  of  itself,  and  that  man  doubting  even  whether  he  does 
doubt,  his  uncertainty  rolls  on  itself  in  a  perpetual  circle  without 
ceasing,  opposing  itself  equally  to  those  who  say  that  everything 
is  uncertain  and  to  those  who  assert  that  all  is  not  so,  because 
it  will  assert  nothing.  It  is  in  this  doubt  which  doubts  of  itself, 
and  in  this  ignorance  which  is  ignorant  of  itself,  that  the  essence 
of  his  opinion  lies,  which  he  has  not  been  able  to  express  by  any 
positive  term.  For  if  he  says  that  he  doubts  he  betrays  himself 
by  asserting  at  least  that  he  does  doubt ;  which,  being  expressly 
contrary  to  his  intention,  he  has  only  been  able  to  explain  himself 
by  interrogation,  so  that  not  wishing  to  say  /  do  not  knoiv,  he  says 
what  do  I  know  ?  And  this  he  takes  for  his  motto,  under  a  pair 
of  scales,  which,  weighing  contradictories,  are  in  perfect  equili- 
brium, that  is  to  say,  he  is  a  pure  Pyrrhonist.  All  his  discourses 


IOO  Port- Royal  Education. 

and  Essays  move  on  this  principle,  and  this  is  the  only  thing  that 
he  pretends  to  thoroughly  establish,  although  he  does  not  always 
let  his  intention  be  seen.  He  insensibly  destroys  by  it  all  that 
passes  among  men  as  most  certain,  not  in  order  to  establish  the 
contrary  with  a  certainty  of  which  by  itself  he  is  the  enemy,  but 
simply  to  show  that  appearances  being  equal  on  both  sides,  a  man 
does  not  know  on  what  to  found  his  belief. 

"  In  this  spirit  he  laughs  at  all  assertions.  For  example,  he 
combats  those  who  have  wished  to  provide  in  France  a  great 
remedy  for  lawsuits  by  the  number  and  so-called  precision  of  the 
laws,  as  if  the  root  of  the  doubt  whence  lawsuits  spring  could  be 
cut  and  there  were  dams  that  could  stop  the  torrent  of  uncertainty 
and  fix  conjectures.  In  this,  however,  when  he  says  that  it  would 
be  just  as  well  to  submit  the  case  to  the  first  passer-by  as  to  judges 
armed  with  this  number  of  laws,  he  does  not  mean  that  the  order 
of  the  State  should  be  changed,  he  has  not  so  much  ambition ;  nor 
that  his  opinion  is  the  best,  he  does  not  think  any  opinion  good ; 
it  is  solely  to  prove  the  vanity  of  the  most  generally  received 
opinions  showing  that  the  exclusion  of  all  law  would  rather 
diminish  the  number  of  disputes  than  that  multitude  of  laws, 
which  only  serves  to  augment  it,  because  obscurities  increase  in 
proportion  as  it  is  hoped  to  remove  them,  that  these  obscurities 
increase  by  the  commentaries,  and  that  the  surest  means  of  under- 
standing the  sense  of  a  discourse  is  not  to  examine  it,  but  to  take  it 
as  it  appears  at  first,  for  if  it  is  examined  ever  so  little  all  its  clear- 
ness disappears.  Thus  he  judges  at  random  all  the  actions  of  men 
and  all  the  points  of  history,  sometimes  in  one  manner  and  some- 
times in  another,  freely  following  his  first  view,  and  without 
submitting  his  thought  to  the  rules  of  reason,  which  has  only 
false  standards,  delighted  to  show  by  his  example  the  contradic- 
tions of  the  same  mind.  As  a  result  of  this  wholly  independent 
attitude,  it  is  the  same  to  him  either  to  get  angry  or  not  in 
disputes,  having  always  by  one  example  or  the  other  a  means 
of  showing  the  weakness  of  opinions,  being  led  with  so  much 
advantage  into  universal  doubt  that  he  fortifies  himself  in  it 
equally  by  his  triumph  or  defeat.  It  is  on  this  foundation,  all 
floating  and  tottering  as  it  is,  that  he  combats  with  invincible 
firmness  the  heretics  of  his  time  upon  this  that  they  are  certain 


Fontaine:    Epictetus  and  Montaigne.  IOI 

that  they  alone  know  the  true  meaning  of  Scripture,  and  it  is 
from  there  also  that  he  most  rigorously  strikes  down  the  horrible 
impiety  of  those  who  assert  that  there  is  no  God. 

"  He  takes  them  in  hand  especially  in  the  apology  of  Kaymond 
of  Sabunde,1  and  finding  them  voluntarily  deprived  of  all  revela- 
tion and  left  to  their  natural  reason,  which  is  nevertheless  put  on 
one  side,  he  questions  them  by  what  authority  they  who  really 
know  not  one  of  the  least  things  in  nature  undertake  to  judge  of 
that  sovereign  Being  who  is  infinite  by  His  own  definition.  He 
asks  them  on  what  principles  they  rely,  and  presses  them  to  point 
them  out  to  him.  He  examines  all  those  that  they  can  produce, 
and  goes  so  far  by  the  talent  in  which  he  excels  that  he  shows  the 
self-conceit  of  all  those  who  pass  for  the  most  enlightened  and  the 
most  firm.  He  asks  if  the  soul  knows  anything,  if  it  knows  itself, 
if  it  is  substance  or  accident,  body  or  spirit ;  what  each  of  these 
things  is,  and  if  there  is  anything  that  is  not  of  either  of  these 
orders,  if  it  knows  its  own  body,  if  it  knows  what  matter  is,  and 
if  it  can  distinguish  bodies  in  the  vast  variety  in  which  they  are 
produced;  how  it  can  reason  if  it  is  material,  and  how  it  can 
be  united  to  a  particular  body  and  feel  its  passions  if  it  is 
spiritual.  When  did  it  begin  to  exist — with  the  body  or  before  1 
and  if  it  ends  with  it  or  not,  if  it  is  never  deceived,  if  it  knows 
when  it  errs,  considering  that  the  essence  of  error  consists  in  not 
knowing  it,  if  in  obscurities  it  does  not  as  firmly  believe  that  two 
and  three  are  six  as  it  believes  afterwards  that  they  are  five;  if 
animals  reason,  think,  and  speak,  who  can  decide  what  time  is, 
what  space  or  extension  is,  what  movement  is,  what  unity  is, 
all  which  things  surround  us  and  are  entirely  inexplicable ;  what 
health  is,  or  death,  life,  sickness,  good,  evil,  righteousness,  sin,  of 
which  we  are  constantly  talking;  if  we  have  in  ourselves  the 
principles  of  the  true,  and  if  those  that  we  believe  and  which  are 
called  axioms  or  notions  common  to  all  men  are  conformable  to 
essential  truth.  And  since  we  know  by  faith  alone  that  an 
infinitely  good  Being  has  given  them  to  us  true,  creating  us  to 
know  the  truth,  who  will  know  without  this  light  if,  being  formed 

1  Raymond  of  Sabunde  professed,  about  the  middle  of  the  XVth  century, 
at  Toulouse,  medicine,  theology,  and  philosophy.  Montaigne  translated  his 
Thtologie  iiaturclle  into  French. 


IO2  Port- Royal  Education. 

by  chance,  our  notions  are  not  uncertain  ?  or  if,  being  formed  by  a 
false  and  wicked  being,  he  has  not  given  them  to  us  false  in  order 
to  mislead  us,  thus  showing  that  God  and  the  true  are  inseparable, 
and  that  if  the  one  is  or  is  not,  if  it  is  certain  or  uncertain,  the 
other  is  necessarily  the  same?  Who  knows  if  common  sense, 
which  we  usually  take  for  the  judge  of  the  true,  was  destined  for 
this  office  by  Him  who  created  it  *\  And  more,  who  knows  what 
truth  is,  and  how  we  can  be  assured  of  having  it  without  knowing 
it  1  Who  knows  even  what  a  being  is  ?  Since  it  is  impossible  to 
define  it,  there  is  nothing  more  universal,  and  to  explain  it  we 
should  have  to  start  by  making  use  of  the  word  being  itself, 
saying  it  is  such  or  such  a  thing.  And  since  we  do  not  know 
what  the  soul,  body,  time,  space,  motion,  truth,  good,  nor  even 
being  are,  nor  how  to  explain  the  idea  that  we  form  of  them, 
how  can  we  assure  ourselves  that  it  is  the  same  in  every  man, 
seeing  that  we  have  no  other  marks  than  uniformity  of  conse- 
quences, which  is  not  always  a  sign  of  uniformity  of  principles  ? 
For  they  may  be  different  and  yet  lead  to  the  same  conclusions, 
everybody  knowing  that  the  true  is  often  deduced  from  the  false. 
"  Then  he  examines  profoundly  all  the  sciences :  geometry,  of 
which  he  endeavours  to  show  the  uncertainty  in  its  axioms,  and 
in  the  terms  which  it  does  not  define,  as  extension,  motion,  &c. ; 
natural  science  and  medicine,  which  he  depreciates  in  many  ways ; 
history,  politics,  ethics,  jurisprudence,  and  the  rest ;  so  that,  with- 
out revelation,  we  might  believe,  according  to  him,  that  life  is 
a  dream  from  which  we  shall  only  awake  at  death,  and  during 
which  we  possess  the  principles  of  truth  as  little  as  during  natural 
sleep.  Thus  he  depreciates  so  strongly  and  cruelly  reason  devoid 
of  faith,  that,  making  it  doubt  if  it  is  reasonable,  and  if  animals 
are  so  or  not,  or  more  or  less  so  than  man,  he  brings  it  down  from 
the  excellence  it  has  attributed  to  itself,  putting  it  as  a  favour  on 
a  level  with  the  brutes,  without  permitting  it  to  leave  this  order 
until  it  be  informed  by  its  Creator  Himself  of  its  true  rank,  of 
which  it  is  ignorant ;  threatening,  if  it  complains,  to  put  it  below 
all,  which  appears  to  him  as  easy  as  the  contrary,  and  in  the  mean- 
while only  acknowledging  its  power  to  act  so  far  as  to  recognize  its 
weakness  with  sincere  humility,  instead  of  exalting  itself  by  a 
foolish  vanity." 


Fontaine:   Epictetus  and  Montaigne.  103 

M.  de  Saci  thought  himself  in  a  new  country,  and  listening  to 
a  strange  language;  and  repeated  to  himself  these  words  of  St. 
Augustine :  "  0  God  of  truth !  are  those  who  know  these  subtle- 
ties of  reasoning  more  pleasing  to  thee  on  that  account  1"  He 
pitied  this  philosopher,  who  pricked  and  tore  himself  everywhere 
with  the  thorns  that  he  himself  made,  as  St.  Augustine  says 
of  himself,  when  he  was  in  that  state.  After  having  patiently 
heard  all,  he  said  to  M.  Pascal,  "  I  am  much  obliged  to  you,  Sir ; 
I  am  sure  that  if  I  had  read  Montagne  for  a  long  time  I  should 
not  know  him  so  well  as  I  know  him  through  the  conversation  that 
I  have  just  had  with  you.  This  man  should  wish  to  be  known 
only  by  the  account  that  you  give  of  his  writings,  and  he  might 
say  with  St.  Augustine,  Ibi  me  vides,  attends.  I  certainly  think 
that  this  man  had  talent,  but  I  am  not  sure  that  you  do  not  lend 
him  a  little  more  than  he  had  by  that  exact  concatenation  that 
you  make  of  his  principles.  You  may  judge  that,  having  passed 
my  life  as  I  have  done,  I  have  seldom  been  advised  to  read  this 
author,  all  whose  works  contain  nothing  that  we  ought  especially 
to  seek  in  our  reading,  according  to  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine, 
because  his  words  do  not  spring  from  humility  and  Christian 
charity,  and  because  they  overturn  the  foundations  of  all  know- 
ledge, and  consequently  of  religion  itself.  This  is  what  this  pious 
doctor  blamed  in  those  philosophers  of  former  times,  who  were 
called  academicians,  and  who  wished  to  throw  doubt  upon  every- 
thing. 

"  But  what  need  had  Montagne  to  divert  his  mind  by  reviving 
a  theory  which  rightly  passes  among  Christians  for  folly  ?  If  it  is 
alleged  in  his  excuse  that,  in  what  he  says,  he  puts  faith  on  one 
side,  we  who  have  faith  ought  to  put  on  one  side  all  that  Mon- 
tagne says.  I  do  not  find  fault  with  the  talent  of  this  author, 
which  is  a  great  gift  of  God ;  but  he  ought  to  make  a  better  use  of 
it,  and  rather  offer  it  to  God  than  to  the  devil.  Of  what  use  is  a 
good  thing  when  it  is  used  so  ill  1  You,  Sir,  are  happy  in  having 
raised  yourself  above  these  doctors  who  are  plunged  in  the  intoxi- 
cation of  science,  and  whose  hearts  are  void  of  the  truth.  God 
has  poured  into  your  heart  other  sweetness  and  attractions  than 
those  you  found  in  Montagne.  He  has  recalled  you  from  that 
dangerous  pleasure,  as  St.  Augustine  says,  who  gives  thanks  to 


IO4  Port-Royal  Education. 

God  that  He  has  pardoned  him  the  sins  he  had  committed  in 
loving  these  vanities  too  much.  St.  Augustine  is  to  be  believed 
in  this  so  much  the  more  as  formerly  he  held  those  opinions ;  and, 
as  you  say  of  Montagne,  that  he  combats  the  heretics  of  his  time 
by  this  universal  doubt,  it  was  also  by  this  same  doubt  of  the 
academicians  that  St.  Augustine  forsook  the  heresy  of  the  Mani- 
chaeans.  After  he  devoted  himself  to  God,  he  renounced  this 
vanity,  which  he  calls  sacrilegious.  He  acknowledged  the  wisdom 
of  St.  Paul  in  warning  us  not  to  be  led  away  by  eloquent  argu- 
ments. For  he  admits  that  there  is  a  certain  pleasure  in  them  that 
carries  us  away.  We  sometimes  think  that  things  are  true  because 
they  are  said  eloquently.  They  are  dangerous  viands,  said  he,  that 
are  served  up  on  fine  dishes ;  but  these  viands,  instead  of  nourish- 
ing the  heart,  leave  it  empty.  We  are  then  like  men  who  are 
asleep,  and  who  think  they  are  eating  while  they  are  sleeping." 

M.  de  Saci  added  several  similar  things ;  upon  which  M.  Pascal 
said  that  if  he  complimented  him  on  knowing  Montagne  so 
thoroughly,  and  knowing  how  to  turn  him  so  well,  he  might  say, 
without  compliment,  that  he  knew  St.  Augustine  more  thoroughly 
and  knew  how  to  turn  him  better,  although  not  very  much  to  the 
advantage  of  poor  Montagne.  M.  Pascal  appeared  to  be  very 
much  edified  by  the  solidity  of  all  that  M.  de  Saci  had  just  put 
before  him.  However,  being  still  full  of  his  author,  he  could  not 
avoid  saying,  "  I  admit,  Sir,  that  I  cannot  see  without  pleasure,  in 
this  author,  haughty  reason  so  irresistibly  attacked  with  its  own 
weapons,  and  this  sanguinary  revolt  of  man  against  himself,  which 
casts  him  down  to  the  condition  of  the  brutes,  from  that  inter- 
course with  God  to  which  he  raised  himself  by  the  principles  of 
his  feeble  reason.  I  should,  with  all  my  heart,  have  loved  this 
instrument  of  a  great  punishment,  if,  being  a  humble  disciple  of 
the  Church  through  faith,  he  had  followed  the  rules  of  morality  by 
inducing  these  same  men,  whom  he  had  so  profitably  humbled,  not 
to  irritate  by  new  crimes  Him  who  alone  can  draw  them  from  those 
which  he  has  proved  to  them  that  they  cannot  even  understand. 
But  he  acts,  on  the  contrary,  like  a  pagan.  From  this  principle, 
says  he,  that  apart  from  faith  everything  is  uncertain,  and  con- 
sidering how  long  we  have  been  seeking  the  true  and  the  good 
without  making  any  progress  towards  tranquillity,  he  concludes  that 


Fontaine:  Epictetus  and  Montaigne.  105 

we  ought  to  leave  the  search  for  these  to  others  and  to  remain  in 
repose,  passing  lightly  over  these  subjects,  lest  by  bearing  on  them 
we  sink  into  them ;  and  to  take  the  true  and  the  good  as  they  first 
present  themselves  without  insisting  upon  them,  because  they  have 
so  little  solidity  that,  however  slightly  we  close  our  hand  on  them, 
they  run  through  the  fingers  and  leave  it  empty.  For  this  reason 
he  follows  the  impressions  of  the  senses  and  common  feelings, 
because  lie  would  have  to  do  violence  to  himself  to  ignore  them, 
and  does  not  know  whether  he  would  gain  by  doing  so,  being 
ignorant  as  to  where  the  truth  lies.  Thus  he  flies  from  pain 
and  death  because  his  instinct  drives  him  to  do  so,  and  because  he 
will  not  resist  this  instinct.  He  does  not,  however,  decide  whether 
they  are  true  evils,  as  he  does  not  altogether  trust  these  natural 
feelings  of  fear,  seeing  that  we  have  other  feelings  of  pleasure 
which  are  censured  as  being  bad,  although  nature,  he  says,  asserts 
the  contrary.  Thus,  he  adds,  there  is  nothing  irrational  in  my 
conduct.  I  act  like  others,  and  all  that  they  do,  with  the  silly 
idea  that  they  are  following  the  true  good,  I  do  in  accordance  with 
another  principle,  which  is  that,  appearances  being  equal  on  both 
sides,  example  and  convenience  are  the  influences  which  should 
determine  me. 

"  He  follows,  then,  the  manners  of  his  country,  because  custom 
governs  him.  He  mounts  his  horse  because  the  horse  allows  him 
to  do  so,  like  any  ordinary  man  who  is  not  a  philosopher;  he 
does  not  conceive  that  he  has  any  moral  right  to  do  this,  inasmuch 
as  he  does  not  know  whether  the  animal  has  not,  on  the  contrary, 
just  as  good  a  right  to  make  use  of  him.  He  also  does  some 
violence  to  himself  in  order  to  avoid  certain  vices,  and  even  keeps 
his  marriage  vow  because  of  the  trouble  that  follows  disregard  of 
it,  his  rule  of  action  in  everything  being  his  own  convenience  and 
tranquillity.  He  casts  far  from  him  that  Stoic  Virtue  that  is 
painted  with  a  severe  countenance,  a  fierce  look,  dishevelled  hair, 
a  wrinkled  and  perspiring  forehead,  in  a  strained  and  painful 
attitude,  far  from  men,  in  gloomy  silence  and  alone  on  the  top  of 
a  rock,  a  phantom,  as  he  says,  to  frighten  children,  and  which 
does  nothing  but  seek  repose,  which  she  never  finds,  by  constant 
toil.  His  science  is  artless,  familiar,  humorous,  sportive,  and 
frolicsome.  She  follows  what  pleases  her,  and  jests  about  things 


io6  Port- Royal  Education. 

that  happen  whether  good  or  bad,  lying  softly  in  the  lap  of  an 
idle  tranquillity  whence  she  shows  men  who  are  so  painfully 
seeking  happiness,  that  it  is  only  to  be  found  there  where  she 
is  reposing,  and  that  ignorance  and  absence  of  curiosity  are  two 
soft  pillows  for  a  sound  head,  as  he  says  himself. 

"I  cannot  conceal  from  you,"  added  M.  Pascal,  "that  in 
reading  this  author  and  comparing  him  with  Epictetus,  I  have 
thought  that  they  were  most  certainly  the  two  greatest  defenders 
of  the  two  most  celebrated  schools  of  the  infidel  world,  which 
alone,  among  those  of  men  destitute  of  the  light  of  religion,  have 
judgments  which  are  in  some  measure  connected  and  consistent. 
For  what  could  they  do  but  follow  one  or  other  of  these  two 
systems  *?  The  first,  there  is  a  God ;  hence,  it  is  He  who  created 
man.  He  made  him  for  Himself.  He  created  him  such  as  he 
should  be  in  order  to  be  just  and  to  become  happy.  Man  can, 
then,  know  the  truth,  and  is  in  a  position  to  raise  himself  by 
wisdom  up  to  God,  who  is  his  highest  good.  Second  system, 
man  cannot  raise  himself  up  to  God.  His  inclinations  contradict 
the  law.  He  is  prone  to  seek  his  happiness  in  visible  good  things, 
and  even  in  those  which  are  most  disgraceful.  Everything  appears 
then  uncertain,  and  the  true  good  is  so  also ;  and  this  seems  to 
reduce  us  to  a  state  in  which  we  have  neither  a  fixed  rule  for 
morals  nor  certainty  in  the  sciences.  I  have  had  great  pleasure 
in  remarking,  in  these  various  reasonings,  in  what  points  both 
have  perceived  something  of  the  truth  that  they  have  essayed  to 
learn.  For  if  it  is  agreeable  to  observe  in  nature  her  desire  to 
paint  God  in  all  her  works,  in  which  indeed  we  see  some  mark 
of  Him,  because  they  are  images  of  Him,  how  much  more  just 
is  it  to  consider  in  the  productions  of  men's  minds  the  efforts  that 
they  make  to  arrive  at  the  truth,  even  while  flying  from  it,  and  to 
note  in  what  points  they  touch  it  and  in  what  points  they  depart 
from  it,  as  I  have  endeavoured  to  do  in  this  study  ^ 

"It  is  true,  Sir,  that  you  have  just  shown  me,  in  an  admirable 
manner,  the  little  need  that  Christians  have  of  these  philosophical 
readings.  I  will,  nevertheless,  with  your  permission  tell  you  my 
thoughts  on  the  subject,  being  ready  notwithstanding  to  give  up 
all  knowledge  that  does  not  corne  from  God,  from  whom  alone  we 
can  receive  the  truth  with  confidence.  It  seems  to  me  that  the 


Fontaine:   Epictetus  and  Montaigne.  107 

source  of  the  errors  of  the  Stoics  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the 
Epicureans  on  the  other,  is  that  they  did  not  recognize  that  man's 
present  state  differs  from  that  at  his  creation ;  so  that  the  one 
sect,  noting  some  traces  of  his  primitive  dignity  and  ignorant  of 
his  corruption,  has  considered  nature  as  sound  and  without  need 
of  a  restorer,  which  leads  it  to  the  most  extreme  pride;  while 
those  who  belong  to  the  other,  feeling  man's  present  misery,  and 
ignorant  of  his  primitive  dignity,  consider  nature  as  necessarily 
unsound  and  incapable  of  improvement ;  this  makes  them  despair 
of  attaining  a  true  good,  and  hence  throws  them  into  extreme 
sloth.  These  two  states,  which  it  is  necessary  to  see  together 
in  order  to  perceive  the  whole  truth,  being  seen  separately, 
necessarily  lead  to  one  of  these  two  vices,  pride  or  sloth, 
in  which  all  men  are  infallibly  plunged  before  grace,  since, 
if  they  do  not  continue  in  their  disorders  through  sloth,  they 
emerge  from  them  through  pride.  Thus  they  are  always  slaves 
of  the  spirits  of  evil,  to  whom,  as  St.  Augustine  remarks,  men 
sacrifice  in  many  fashions.  From  this  imperfect  knowledge,  then, 
it  happens  that  the  one,  knowing  his  impotence  and  not  his  duty, 
sinks  into  sloth;  and  that  the  other,  knowing  his  duty  without 
knowing  his  impotence,  rises  up  in  his  pride ;  whence  it  seems 
that  by  combining  them  we  should  form  a  perfect  morality.  But 
instead  of  this  peace,  there  would  only  result  from  their  junction 
war  and  general  destruction.  For,  the  one  establishing  certainty 
and  the  other  doubt,  the  one  the  dignity  of  man  and  the  other 
his  weakness,  they  cannot  unite  and  agree ;  so  that  they  can 
neither  exist  separately  by  reason  of  their  defects,  nor  unite 
because  of  their  opinions,  and  thus  they  must  necessarily  be 
shattered  and  annihilated  in  order  to  give  place  to  the  truth  of 
the  Gospel.  This  truth,  by  a  divine  art,  reconciles  contradic- 
tories. Uniting  all  that  is  true,  and  rejecting  all  that  is  false, 
it  teaches  a  truly  heavenly  wisdom,  in  which  the  opposing 
principles,  which  were  incompatible  in  those  human  doctrines, 
agree.  And  the  reason  of  this  is  that  those  wise  men  of  the 
world  have  placed  the  contraries  in  the  same  object.  For  one 
attributes  strength  to  nature,  the  other  weakness  to  this  same 
nature,  which  cannot  be;  whereas  faith  teaches  us  to  put  them 
in  different  objects,  all  that  is  weak  appertaining  to  nature,  and 


io8  Port-Royal  Education. 

all  that  is  powerful  appertaining  to  grace.  This  is  a  new  and 
astonishing  union,  which  a  God  alone  could  teach,  which  He  alone 
could  make,  and  which  is  but  an  image  and  effect  of  the  ineffable 
union  of  two  natures  in  the  sole  person  of  a  God-man. 

"  I  beg  your  pardon,  Sir,  for  transporting  myself  before  you  into 
theology  instead  of  remaining  in  philosophy.  But  my  subject 
led  me  to  it  insensibly ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  entering  into 
it,  whatever  truth  is  treated  of,  because  it  is  the  centre  of  all 
truths ;  and  this  is  very  plain  here,  since  it  so  visibly  contains 
all  those  which  are  found  in  these  opinions.  Moreover,  I  do  not 
see  how  any  one  of  them  can  refuse  to  follow  it.  For,  if  they 
are  full  of  the  idea  of  the  dignity  of  man,  what  have  they 
imagined  in  it  that  does  not  give  way  before  the  promises  of  the 
Gospel,  which  are  nothing  else  than  the  worthy  reward  of  the 
death  of  a  Godl  And  if  they  take  pleasure  in  seeing  the 
infirmity  of  nature,  their  idea  does  not  equal  that  of  the  real 
weakness  of  sin,  of  which  the  same  death  was  the  remedy.  Thus 
all  find  in  it  more  than  they  wished ;  and,  what  is  wonderful,  they 
find  themselves  united  in  it,  they  who  could  not  unite  in  an 
infinitely  lower  grade." 

M.  de  Saci  could  not  avoid  showing  M.  Pascal  his  surprise  at 
the  manner  in  which  he  turned  things.  He  acknowledged  at  the 
same  time  that  everybody  had  not  the  secret,  like  him,  of  making 
such  wise  and  elevated  reflections  on  their  reading.  He  told  him 
he  was  like  those  clever  doctors,  who  by  their  skilful  manner  of 
preparing  the  most  powerful  poisons  could  draw  from  them  the 
most  powerful  remedies.  He  added  that,  although  he  saw  very 
well,  by  all  he  had  just  told  him,  that  this  reading  was  useful 
to  him,  nevertheless  he  could  not  think  that  it  was  advantageous 
to  many  people,  whose  minds  would  not  have  sufficient  elevation 
to  read  and  weigh  these  authors,  and  be  able  to  pick  up  some 
pearls  from  the  dunghill,  whence  a  black  smoke  arose,  which 
might  obscure  the  tottering  faith  of  those  who  read  them ;  that, 
for  this  reason,  he  always  advised  those  persons  not  to  expose 
themselves  lightly  to  this  reading,  for  fear  of  losing  themselves 
with  those  philosophers,  and  becoming  the  prey  of  demons,  and 
food  for  worms,  according  to  the  language  of  Scripture,  as  those 
philosophers  had  been. 


r -I      \ 

Fontaine:  Epictetus  and  Montaigne.  109 


"As  to  the  utility  of  this  reading,"  said  M.  Pascal,  "I  will  tell 
you  very  simply  my  opinion.  I  find  in  Epictetus  an  incomparable 
art  to  trouble  the  repose  of  those  who  seek  it  in  exterior  things, 
and  to  compel  them  to  acknowledge  that  they  are  veritable  slaves 
and  miserable  blind  men ;  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  find 
anything  else  than  the  error  and  pain  that  they  shun  if  they  do 
not  give  themselves  unreservedly  to  God.  Montagne  is  incom- 
parable for  confounding  the  pride  of  those  who,  without -faith, 
boast  of  true  righteousness ;  for  disabusing  those  who  cling  to 
their  opinions,  and  who  think  they  find  in  the  sciences  unshaken 
truths,  independently  of  the  existence  and  perfections  of  God ; 
for  so  thoroughly  convicting  reason  of  its  small  intelligence  and 
of  its  aberrations,  that  it  is  difficult,  after  that,  to  be  tempted 
to  reject  the  mysteries  because  we  think  we  find  contradictions 
in  them ;  for  the  mind  is  so  beaten  by  them  that  it  is  far  from 
being  willing  to  consider  whether  the  Incarnation  and  the  mystery 
of  the  Eucharist  are  possible,  which  ordinary  men  do  only  too 
often.  But  if  Epictetus  opposes  idleness,  he  leads  to  pride,  and 
may  be  very  hurtful  to  those  who  are  not  persuaded  of  the 
corruption  of  all  righteousness  that  does  not  spring  from  faith. 

"  Montagne  is  absolutely  pernicious  for  those  who  have  a  leaning 
towards  impiety  and  vice.  Therefore  this  reading  should  be 
regulated  with  much  care,  discretion,  and  regard  for  the  position 
and  morals  of  those  to  whom  it  is  recommended.1  It  seems  to 
me  even  that  by  combining  them  they  would  not  succeed  entirely 
ill  because  one  opposes  the  evil  of  the  other.  They  cannot  give 
virtue  to  man,  but  only  disturb  him  in  his  vices;  man  finding 
himself  opposed  by  contraries,  one  of  which  chases  away  pride 
and  the  other  idleness,  and  not  being  able  to  rest  in  any  of 
these  vices,  although  he  cannot  flee  them  all." 

In  this  manner  these  two  large-minded  men  agreed  on  the 
subject  of  the  reading  those  philosophers,  and  arrived  at  the  same 


1  Mme.  de  Sevigne  recommends  Mme.  de  Grignan  not  to  let  her  daughter 
Pauline  ' '  dip  her  little  nose  into  Montaigne,  nor  Charron  .  .  .  There  is  time 
yet  for  her."  (1690.)  But  how  she  felt  the  charm  of  the  author  of  the 
Essays!  "Ah  !  what  an  amiable  man  !  What  good  company  he  is  !  He 
is  my  old  friend  ;  but,  by  force  of  being  old,  he  is  new  to  me."  (6  Oct., 
1679.) 


no  Port- Royal  Education. 

result,  although  they  did  so  by  slightly  different  means  ;  M.  de 
Saci  arriving  at  once  by  solely  regarding  Christianity,  and  M. 
Pascal  only  arriving  after  many  deviations  by  following  the  prin- 
ciples of  these  Philosophers.  (Fontaine,  Memoires,  t.  iii.  p.  77.) 


OF  A  NEW  METHOD  OF  EASILY  LEAENING  TO 
READ  IN  ANY  LANGUAGE,1 

This  method  chiefly  concerns  those  who  cannot  yet  read. 
Simply  learning  the  letters  is  not  much  trouble  to  beginners ; 
there  is  more  in  putting  them  together. 

Now  what  makes  this  more  difficult  at  present  is  that,  each 
letter  having  its  name,  it  is  pronounced  alone  differently  than 
when  it  is  joined  with  others.  For  example,  if  we  make  a  child 
put  together  /  r  y,  we  make  him  pronounce  ef,  ar,  wy ;  which 
infallibly  confuses  him  when  he  wishes  to  join  these  three  sounds 
together  to  make  the  sound  of  the  syllable  fry. 

It  seems  then,  that  the  most  natural  way,  as  some  intelligent 
persons  have  already  remarked,  would  be,  that  those  who  are 
teaching  to  read  should,  at  first,  only  teach  the  children  to  know 
their  letters  by  their  value  in  pronunciation;  and  that  thus,  to 
teach  to  read  in  Latin,  for  example,  they  should  give  the  same 
name  e  to  simple  e,  ce  and  ce,  because  they  are  pronounced  in  the 
same  way ;  and  the  same  to  i  and  y;  and  also  to  o  and  au,  as 

1  M.  Cousin  has  edited  an  unpublished  letter  of  Jacqueline  Pascal  (26  Oct., 
1655),  from  which  it  results  that  the  method  of  reading  styled  of  Port-Royal 
must  be  attributed  to  Pascal.  "  .  .  .  Our  mothers  have  commanded  me  to 
write  to  you  to  send  me  all  the  particulars  of  your  method  of  learning  by  the 
B,  C,  D,  E,  in  which  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  children  to  know  the  names 
of  the  letters ;  for  I  see  very  well  how  they  can  be  taught  to  read,  for 
example,  Jesu,  making  them  pronounce  Je  e,  ze  u  ;  but  I  do  not  see  how  they 
can  easily  be  made  to  understand  that  final  letters  must  not  add  e;  for 
naturally,  following  this  method,  they  will  say  Jesuse,  unless  they  are  told 
that  they  must  not  pronounce  e  at  the  end  unless  it  is  really  there  ;  nor  do  I 
see  how  to  teach  them  to  pronounce  the  consonants  which  follow  the  vowels, 
for  instance  en;  for  they  will  say  ene,  instead  of  pronouncing  an  as  the 
French  often  requires.  In  the  same  way,  for  on  they  will  say  one,  and  even 
by  making  them  slur  over  the  e  they  will  not  pronounce  it  with  a  good  accent 
if  they  are  not  taught  separately  the  pronunciation  of  the  o  with  the  n." 
(Jacqueline  Pascal,  p.  265.)  Jan.  31,  1656,  Arnauld  writes  to  the  mother 
Angelique  to  have  Pascal's  method  of  reading,  in  order  to  try  it  on  a  boy  of 
twelve  years  of  age. 


Lancelot :    Learning  to  Read.  1 1 1 

they  are  now  pronounced  in  France,  for  the  Italians  make  au  a 
diphthong. 

Let  the  consonants  also  only  be  named  by  their  natural  sound, 
simply  adding  e  mute,  which  is  necessary  in  order  to  pronounce 
them.  For  example,  let  the  name  given  to  b  be  what  is  pro- 
nounced in  the  last  syllable  of  the  French  word  tombe;  to  d  that 
of  the  last  syllable  of  ronde ;  and  thus  to  the  others  which  have 
only  a  simple  sound. 

Let  those  which  have  several  sounds,  as  c,  g,  t,  s,  be  named  by 
the  most  natural  and  usual  sound,  which  is  for  c  the  sound  of  &,1 
and  for  g  the  sound  g  hard,  for  t  the  sound  of  the  last  syllable  of 
forte,  and  for  s  that  of  the  last  syllable  of  bourse. 

And  then  they  would  be  taught  to  pronounce  separately,  and 
without  spelling,  the  syllables  ce,  ci,  ge,  gi,  tia,  tie,  tii.  And  they 
would  be  taught  that  s  between  two  vowels  is  pronounced  like  z  ; 
miseria,  misere,  as  if  it  were  mizeria,  mizere,  &c. 

These  are  the  most  general  observations  on  this  new  method  of 
teaching  to  read  which  would  certainly  be  very  useful  to  children. 
But  to  set  it  out  in  full  would  require  a  small  separate  treatise,  in 
which  the  observations  necessary  to  fit  it  for  any  language  might 
be  made.2 

OF  THE  VERB. 

Men  have  not  had  less  need  to  invent  words  which  should 
mark  affirmation,  which  is  the  principal  mode  of  our  thought, 
than  to  invent  those  which  should  mark  the  objects  of  our 
thought. 

1  Duclos  proposed  to  employ  Tc  instead  of  c,  keeping  c  for  the  sound  cht 
for  which  there  is  no  character  in  the  alphabet.     Charles- Quint  would  be 
written  Carle-Kint. 

2  "The  whole  of  this  chapter  is  excellent,"  writes  Duclos,  "  and  admits  of 
no  exception  or  reply.     It  is  astonishing  that  the  authority  of  Port-Royal, 
especially  at  that  time,  and  supported  as  it  has  since  been  by  experience,  has 
not  yet  caused  reason  to  triumph  over  the  absurdities  of  the  ordinary  method. 
Following  the  reasoning  of  Port-Royal,  the  Typographic  Table  gave  their  most 
natural  denomination  to  the  letters  fe,  he,  ke,  le,  me,  ne,  re,  se,  ze,  ve,  je, 
and  the  abbreviation  cse,  gse;  and  not  efe,  ache,  ka,  ele,  &me,  ene,  esse,  zede,  i 
and  u  consonants,  icse.     This  method,  already  admitted  in  the  last  edition 
of  the  Dictionary  of  the  Academy,  and  practised  in  the  best  schools,  will 
prevail  sooner  or  later  over  the  former  system  by  the  advantage  that  cannot 
fail  to  be  eventually  acknowledged  ;  but  it  will  require  time,  because  that  is 
reasonable."  (Commentaire  sur  la  grammaire  g6n6rale.)    The  victory  is  not 
yet  complete.     See  note  on  p.  255. 


1 1 2  Port-Royal  Education. 


And  it  is  in  this  properly  that  what  we  call  the  verb  consists, 
which  is  nothing  else  than  a  word  tvhose  chief  use  is  to  signify 
affirmation,  that  is  to  say,  to  mark  that  the  discourse  in  which 
this  word  is  used  is  the  discourse  of  a  man  who  not  only  conceives 
of  things,  but  judges  of  them  and  affirms  something  of  them. 
And  in  this  the  verb  is  distinguished  from  some  words  which  also 
signify  affirmation,  as  affirmans,  affirmatio,  because  they  signify  it 
only  in  so  far  as,  by  a  reflection  of  the  mind,  it  has  become  the 
object  of  our  thought,  and  thus  they  do  not  mark  that  he  who  uses 
these  words  affirms,  but  simply  that  he  conceives  an  affirmation. 

I  have  said  that  the  principal  office  of  the  verb  was  to  signify 
affirmation,1  because  we  shall  show  further  on  that  it  is  also  used 
to  signify  other  movements  of  the  mind,  as  to  desire,  to  ask,  to 
command,  &c.,  but  it  is  only  by  changing  inflection  and  mood, 
and  thus  we  only  consider  the  verb  in  the  whole  of  this  chapter 
according  to  its  principal  signification,  which  is  that  which  it  has 
in  the  indicative  mood.  According  to  this  idea  we  may  say  that 
the  verb  in  itself  ought  to  have  no  other  office  than  to  mark 
the  connection  that  we  make  in  our  mind  between  the  two  terms 
of  a  proposition.  But  it  is  only  the  verb  to  be,  which  is  called 
substantive,  that  has  preserved  this  simplicity ;  and  also,  properly 
speaking,  it  has  only  preserved  it  in  the  third  person  of  the 
present  tense,  is,  and  in  certain  connections ;  for,  as  men  are 
naturally  led  to  shorten  their  expressions,  they  have  almost 
always  added  other  significations  to  the  affirmation  in  the  same 
word. 

1.  They  have  joined  to  it  that  of  some  attribute,  so  that  then 
two  words  form  a  proposition ;  as  when  I  say,  Petrus  vivit,  Peter 
lives,  because  the  word  vivit  contains  in  itself  the  affirmation,  and 
also  the  attribute  to  be  living ;  and  thus  it  is  the  same  thing 
to  say,  Peter  lives,  as  to  say,  Peter  is  living.  Hence  has  come 
the  great  diversity  of  verbs  in  every  language;  whereas  if  men 
had  been  content  to  give  the  verb  the  general  signification  of 
affirmation,  without  adding  to  it  any  particular  attribute,  a  single 
verb  only  would  have  been  necessary  in  any  language,  namely, 
that  which  is  called  substantive. 

1  To  affirm  would  be  more  exact  than  to  signify  affirmation. 


Lancelot :    Of  the   Verb.  1 1 3 

2.  They  have  also  joined  to  it  in  certain  circumstances  the 
subject  of  the  proposition,  so  that  then  two  words,  and  even  one 
word,  may  form  a  complete  proposition.     Two  words,  as  when 
I   say,   sum   homo,  because   sum   not   only  signifies  affirmation, 
but  includes  the  signification  of  the  pronoun  ego,  which  is  the 
subject   of  this  proposition,   and  which  is  always  expressed  in 
our  language,  I  am  a  man.     One  word,  as  when  I  say,  vivo,  sedeo; 
for  these  verbs  include  in  themselves  both  the  affirmation  and  the 
attribute,  as  we  have  already  said ;  and  being  in  the  first  person, 
they  include  also  the  subject :  I  am  living,  I  am  sitting.     Hence 
has  arisen  the  difference  of  persons  which  is  usually  found  in  all 
verbs. 

3.  They  have  also  joined  a  reference  to  the  time  with  respect 
to  which  they  affirm,  so  that  a  single  word,  as  ccenasti,  signifies 
that  I  affirm  of  him  to  whom  I  speak  the  action  of  supping,  not 
for  the  present  time,  but  for  the  past,  and  hence  has  come  the 
diversity  of  tenses,  which  is  also  usually  common  to  all  verbs. 

The  diversity  of  these  significations  joined  to  the  same  word 
has  prevented  many  persons,  otherwise  very  intelligent,  from 
thoroughly  understanding  the  nature  of  the  verb,  because  they 
have  not  considered  it  in  its  essential  part,  which  is  affirmation, 
but  in  its  other  relations,  which  are  accidental  to  it  in  so  far 
as  it  is  a  verb. 

Thus  Aristotle,1  having  stopped  at  the  third  of  the  significations 
added  to  that  which  is  essential  in  the  verb,  has  defined  it  as 
a  word  that  signifies  with  time.2 


1  M.   Egger  very  justly  blames  the  author  for  not  taking  the  trouble 
to  refer  to  the  original  texts,  and  for  giving  as  Aristotle's  an  incomplete 
definition  of  the  verb    from  a  quotation   of  Boxhorn's :    "This  idea  of 
affirmation  is  very  clearly  expressed  in  the  second  part  of  Aristotle's  phrase, 
which  has  been  omitted  in  the  quotation :  It  is  always  the  sign  of  what 
is  affirmed  of  some  other  thing.     This  is  precisely  what  the  Port- Royal 
logician  wished  to  show.     In  no  edition  that  I  know  of  the  work  of  Port- 
Royal  has  this  omission  been  noticed."  (De  VlielUnisme  en  France,  t.  ii. 
p.  61.) 

2  Beauzee  remarks  the  same  mistake  in  Scaliger.     "The  verb,"  says  he, 
* '  is  the  only  kind  of  word  which  appears  susceptible  of  distinction  of  tense. 
Julius  Csesar  Scaliger  thought  it  so  essential  to  this  part  of  speech  that 
he  took  it  for  the  specific  character  which  distinguishes  it  from  all  the  rest." 
(Grammaire  gdne'rale,  t.  i.  p.  422.)     "The  German  grammarians,"  he  adds, 
"  have  given  to  the  verb,  in  their  language,  the  name  of  Zeit  wort,  composed 


H4  Port- Royal  Education. 

Others,  as  Buxtorf,1  having  added  the  second  to  it,  have  defined 
it  as  a  word  which  has  different  inflexions  with  times  and  persons. 

Others  having  stopped  at  the  first  of  these  added  significations, 
that  of  the  attribute,  and  having  considered  that  the  attributes 
which  men  have  joined  to  the  affirmation  in  a  word  are  usually 
those  of  actions  or  passions,  have  thought  that  the  essence  of  the 
verb  consisted  in  signifying  actions  or  passions. 

And,  in  fine,  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger2  thought  that  he  had  found 
a  mystery  in  his  book  on  the  Principles  of  the  Latin  Tongue, 
by  saying  that  the  distinction  of  things  in  permanentes  et  fluentes, 
into  those  which  remain  and  those  which  pass,  was  the  real  origin 
of  the  distinction  between  nouns  and  verbs,  the  nouns  signifying 
what  remains  and  the  verbs  what  passes. 

But  it  is  easy  to  see  that  all  these  definitions  are  false,  and  do 
not  explain  the  true  nature  of  the  verb. 

The  manner  in  which  the  first  two  are  conceived  shows  this 
sufficiently ;  since  it  is  not  said  what  the  verb  signifies,  but  only 
that  with  which  it  signifies,  with  times  and  persons. 

The  last  two  are  still  worse ;  for  they  have  the  two  greatest 
defects  of  a  definition,  that  they  do  not  include  the  whole  of  the 
thing  defined,  nor  only  the  thing  defined. 

For  there  are  verbs  which  signify  neither  actions  nor  passions, 
nor  that  which  passes,  as  existit,  quiescit,  friget,  alget,  tepet,  calet, 
albet,  viret,  claret,  &c. 

And  there  are  words  which  are  not  verbs,  which  signify  actions 
and  passions,  and  even  things  which  pass,  according  to  the 
definition  of  Scaliger;  for  it  is  certain  that  participles  are  true 
nouns,  and  that,  nevertheless,  those  of  active  verbs  do  not  the 
less  signify  actions,  and  those  of  the  passive  verbs  passions,  than 
the  verbs  from  which  they  come ;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  assert 
that  fluens  does  not  signify  a  thing  which  passes  as  well  as  fluit. 


of  Zeit,  time,  and  Wort,  word  ;  so  that  das  Zeit  wort  signifies  literally 
the  word  of  the  time."  Beauzee  would  only  accept  it  by  interpreting,  by 
metonymy,  the  name  time  by  that  of  existence. 

1  Buxtorf,  a  celebrated  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Bale,  died  1629. 

2  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger,  a  celebrated  philologer  (1484-1558).     His  work, 
De  causis  linguae  latinae,  libri  xiii.,  appeared  at  Lyons  in  1540.     We  see 
even  by  Arnauld's  criticism  that  Scaliger  had  endeavoured  to  introduce  the 
philosophical  spirit  into  grammatical  studies. 


Lancelot :    Of  the   Verb.  1 1 5 

To  which  may  be  added,  in  opposition  to  the  first  two  definitions 
of  the  verb,  that  the  participles  also  signify  with  time,  since  there 
are  present,  past,  and  future,  especially  in  Greek ;  and  those  who 
think,  and  not  without  reason,  that  a  vocative  is  a  true  second 
person,  above  all  when  it  has  a  different  termination  from  the 
nominative,  will  find  that  there  will  only  be,  on  that  point,  a 
difference  of  more  or  less  between  the  vocative  and  the  verb.1 

Thus  the  essential  reason  why  a  participle  is  not  a  verb  is  that 
it  does  not  signify  affirmation;2  whence  it  comes  that  it  cannot 
make  a  proposition,  which  is  the  property  of  the  verb,  unless  by 
restoring  what  has  been  taken  from  it  in  changing  the  verb  into  a 
participle.  For  why  is  Petrus  vivit,  Peter  lives,  a  proposition,  and 
Petrus  vivens,  Peter  living,  not  one,  unless  you  add  est,  is,  to  it, 
Petrus  est  vivens,  Peter  is  living,  unless,  because  the  affirmation 
contained  in  vivit  has  been  taken  away  to  make  the  participle 
vivens?  Whence  it  appears  that  the  affirmation  which  is  or 
which  is  not  in  a  word  makes  it  a  verb  or  not  a  verb. 

On  which  it  may  be  remarked,  in  passing,  that  the  infinitive 
which  is  very  often  a  noun,  as  we  shall  state,  as  when  we  say  le 
boire,  le  manger,  to  drink,  to  eat,  is  then  different  from  participles 
in  this,  that  the  participles  are  nouns  adjective,  and  that  the  in- 
finitive is  a  noun  substantive,  made  by  the  abstraction  of  this 
adjective,  as  from  candidus  is  made  candor,  and  from  white 
whiteness.  Thus  the  verb  rubet  signifies  is  red,  including  the 
affirmation  and  the  attribute ;  the  participle  rubens  signifies 
simply  red,  without  any  affirmation ;  and  rubere,  taken  as  a 
noun,  signifies  redness. 

It  must,  then,  be  regarded  as  certain,  considering  only  what  is 
essential  in  the  verb,  that  its  only  true  definition  is,  vox  significans 
affirmationem,  a  word  signifying  affirmation.  For  no  word  denot- 
ing affirmation  can  be  found  which  is  not  a  verb,  nor  a  verb  which 
does  not  denote  it,  at  least  in  the  indicative.  And  it  is  undoubted 
that,  if  we  had  one,  as  is  would  be,  which  should  always  mark 

1  The  nominative  is  the  case  that  indicates  the  subject ;  Dominus,  the 
Lord,  the  vocative  is  used  to  call  Domine,  0  Lord. 

2  Certain  grammarians   admit,    however,    and  not  without  reason,    the 
participial   proposition.      In   this  phrase,  the  parts  being  made,  the   lion 
spoke  thus,  the  words  in  italics  are  exactly  equivalent  to  this  proposition, 
\ohen  the  parts  were  made. 


Ii6  Port- Royal  Education. 


affirmation  without  any  difference  of  person  or  tense,  so  that  the 
difference  of  person  should  be  marked  only  by  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns, and  the  difference  of  tense  by  adverbs,  there  would  still 
be  one  real  verb.  As,  in  fact,  there  is  in  the  propositions  that 
philosophers  call  eternal  truths,  as,  God  is  infinite ;  every  body  is 
divisible ;  the  whole  is  greater  than  its  part ;  the  word  is  signifies 
simple  affirmation  only,  without  any  regard  to  time,  because  it  is 
true  for  all  times,  and  without  our  mind  taking  into  consideration 
any  difference  of  persons. 

Thus  the  verb,  according  to  what  is  essential  to  it,  is  a  word 
which  signifies  affirmation  ;  but  if  we  wish  to  put  into  the  defini- 
tion of  the  verb  its  principal  accidents,  we  may  define  it  thus : 
vox  signiftcans  affirmationem,  cum  designations  personae,  numeri 
et  temporis;  a  word  which  signifies  affirmation,  with  designation  of 
person,  number,  and  tense,  which  exactly  agrees  with  the  verb 
substantive. 

For,  in  so  far  as  the  other  verbs  differ  from  the  verb  substantive 
by  the  union  which  men  have  made  of  the  affirmation  with  certain 
attributes,  they  may  be  thus  defined :  vox  signiftcans  affirmationem 
alicujus  attributi  ;  cum  designations  personae,  numeri  et  temporis  ; 
a  word  ivhich  marks  the  affirmation  of  some  attribute,  with  designa- 
tion of  the  person,  number,  and  tense}- 

And  it  may  be  remarked,  in  passing,  that  the  affirmation,  in  so 
far  as  it  is  conceived,  being  able  to  be  the  attribute  of  the  verb, 
as  in  the  verb  affirmo,  this  verb  signifies  two  affirmations,  of 
which  one  regards  the  person  speaking,  and  the  other  the 
person  spoken  of,  whether  it  be  oneself  or  another.  For,  when 
I  say  Petrus  affirmat,  affirmat  is  the  same  thing  as  est  affirmans? 
and  then  est  marks  my  affirmation,  or  the  judgment  that  I  form 
concerning  Peter ;  and  affirmans  the  affirmation  that  I  conceive 
and  attribute  to  Peter.  The  verb  nego,  on  the  contrary,  contains 
an  affirmation  and  a  negation  for  the  same  reason. 

For  it  must  still  be  remarked  that  although  all  our  judgments 

1  There  is  room  to  complete  this  definition  by  adding  to  the  mention  of 
time  that  of  mood. 

2  In  English  these  two  forms  are  not  equivalent ;  the  present  participle 
with  the  auxiliary  to  be  expresses  more  precisely  that  the  affirmation  is 
relative  to  the  moment  in  which  the  person  is  speaking. 


Arnauld:    Questions  of  Grammar.  117 


are  not  affirmative,  but  some  are  negative,  the  verbs,  nevertheless, 
never  signify  by  themselves  anything  but  affirmations,  the  negation 
being  marked  by  the  particles  no,  not,  or  by  words  which  include 
it,  nullus,  nemo,  none,  no  one,  which,  being  joined  to  verbs,  change 
the  affirmation  into  negation,  as  no  man  is  immortal;  nullum 
corpus  est  indivisibile,1  no  body  is  indivisible.  (Grammaire  generale 
et  raisonnee.) 

QUESTIONS  OF  GRAMMAR. 

MADAM,2 — Nothing  could  be  more  obliging  than  the  reply  of 
the  Academy.  But  as  you  would  have  reason  to  take  it  amiss 
if  I  did  not  speak  to  you  with  all  sincerity,  I  will  tell  you  frankly 
than  I  expected  something  more  from  such  a  celebrated  society. 
For  of  the  five  questions  proposed  to  them,  the  last  only  regarding 
French  grammar  in  particular,  and  the  first  four  regarding  general 
grammar,  and  being  some  of  those  which  M.  de  la  Chambre3 
admits  can  only  be  resolved  by  the  deepest  meditations  of  phil- 
osophy, it  would  have  been  desirable  that  they  should  rather  have 
attended  to  them  than  to  the  last,  which  they  might  with  more 
reason  refer  to  French  grammar  than  the  former;  since  it  is 
not  usual  to  treat  in  special  grammars  what  is  common  to  every 
language.  .  .  .  After  all,  Madam,  it  would  be  an  ill  return  for 
the  obligation  we  are  under  to  them  for  the  information  they 
have  given  us  to  stop  and  make  complaints  that  they  have  not 
thought  proper  to  give  us  more. 

1  Beauzee  (Grammaire  gdnerale,  t.  i.  p.  395)  does  not  accept  the  theory  of 
Port-Royal.     But  his  objections  do  not  appear  to  me  to  be  sound,  and  the 
definition  that  he  proposes  to  substitute  has  not  been  received  very  favour- 
ably :   Verbs  are  words  which  express  indeterminate  beings,  pointing  them  out 
by  the  precise  idea  of  intellectual  existence  with  relation  to  an  attribute.     The 
least  defect  in  this  phrase  is  its  abstractness  and  want  of  clearness. 

Lancelot  would,  in  my  opinion,  be  inattackable  if  he  had  more  clearly 
laid  it  down  that  the  essential  and  not  only  the  principal  office  of  the  verb 
is  to  affirm,  and  that  it  is  by  that  that  it  has  deserved  to  be  called  the  word 
par  excellence,  for  it  is  the  soul  of  the  sentence.  The  moods,  which  he  has 
forgotten  to  mention,  are  only  different  manners  of  affirming.  A  negation  is 
still  an  affirmation  contrary  to  another. 

2  Letter  of  Arnauld  to  a  lady  on  the  subject  of  the  reply  of  the  French 
Academicians  to  five  questions  that  M.  Arnauld  had  proposed  to  them  on 
general  grammar,  &c. 

3  De  la  Chambre  (1594-1660),  physician  to  Louis  XIV.,  member  of  the 
French  Academy  and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 


1 1 8  Port-Royal  Education. 

The  manner  in  which  they  have  answered  the  question  which 
specially  referred  to  the  French  language  shows  such  a  strict 
investigation  into  all  the  modes  of  expression  in  our  language, 
that  there  is  nothing  perfect  and  finished  which  may  not  be 
expected  from  this  society,  if  they  give  to  the  public,  as  we  are 
led  to  hope,  their  meditations  and  remarks.  You  will,  neverthe- 
less, Madam,  allow  me  to  lay  before  you  a  few  small  doubts. 

I  have  some  difficulty  with  the  examples  they  bring  forward 
at  the  beginning,  mile,  qui  parlemente,  eau  qui  dort,  &c.  For  our 
language  should  be  regulated  by  present  and  not  by  former  usage. 
Now  I  do  not  think  that  these  modes  of  speaking,  mile  qui 
parlemente^  eau  qui  dort,  &c.,  are  in  the  present  use,  but  are 
proverbs  which  have  survived  from  the  ancient  language  in  which 
the  articles  were  almost  always  omitted.1  To  speak  as  we  do  now 
we  must  no  doubt  say,  une  mile  qui  parlemente,  une  eau  qui  dort, 
&c.  And  reason  itself  requires  it  thus,  because,  excepting  proper 
names,  I  think  that  it  is  a  general  rule  that  when  a  noun  is  the 
subject  of  a  proposition  it  should  have  an  article  or  some  word 
standing  in  place  of  it,  as  tout,  plusieurs,  and  names  of  number 
deux,  trois,  &c. ;  Phomme  est  raisonnable,  tout  homme  est  raison- 
nable,  deux  hommes  Font  attaque,  &c.  But  these  gentlemen  have 
well  remarked  that  vocatives  must  be  excepted,  because  it  is  the 
having  no  article2  that  distinguishes  them  from  the  nominative. 
And  besides,  in  our  language  they  are  only  the  subject  of  a 
proposition  when  the  pronoun  vous  is  added,  del,  vous  voyez  mes 
maux ;  Soleil,  vous  eclair ez  toutes  choses.  It  is  true  that  the 
pronoun  is  not  used  when  they  are  joined  to  the  imperative ;  del, 
voyez  ce  que  je  souffre  ;  Seigneur ,  ecoutez  ma  voix.  But  then  they 
are  not  the  subject  of  a  proposition.  I  may  easily  be  mistaken, 
never  having  paid  much  attention  to  these  things  which  depend 
on  usage.  Nevertheless  I  think  that  this  rule,  that  in  our 
language  a  common  noun  should  always  have  an  article  when  it  is 
the  subject  of  a  proposition,  is  true ;  and  that  it  should  not  be 
thought  false  because  the  contrary  is  seen  in  many  proverbial 
modes  of  speaking,  which  have  survived  from  the  old  language, 

1  Latin,  whence  French  is  derived,  has  no  article. 

2  See  note,  p.  115. 


Arnauld:    Questions  of  Grammar.  119 

and  which  it  is  proper  to  notice,  but  not  to  take  as  rules  of  usage 
at  the  present  time. 

I  am  not  sure,  Madam,  that  we  cannot  say  as  much  for  the 
greater  number  of  the  phrases  that  are  given  in  the  five  remarks 
that  these  gentlemen  make  to  show  in  what  circumstances  qui 
may  be  put  after  nouns  without  the  article.  For  Jiomme  qui  vive, 
dine  qui  vive,  vie  qui  dure  are  the  remains  of  the  old  style,  which 
continue  to  pass  because  usage  permits  it,  especially  in  popular 
style,  but  upon  which,  as  I  have  already  said,  I  do  not  think  we 
should  regulate  our  language. 

I  also  think  that,  to  speak  correctly  according  to  present  usage, 
we  should  rather  say,  fai  un  homme  en  main  qui  /era  ;  je  connais 
dcs  gens  qui  disent,  &c.,  than  fai  homme  en  main,  je  connais 
gens  qui  disent,  &c.  And  I  doubt,  Madam,  if  you  would  use 
this  last,  or  if  you  ever  said,  Prenez  ratines  de  betoine  qui  aient  ete 
sechees  au  soleil,  or  prenez  eau-de-vie  qui  ait  ete  rectifiee,  instead  of 
saying,  as  you  no  doubt  have  always  done,  prenez  des  racines  de 
betoine,  &c. ;  prenez  de  Veau-de-vie,  &c.  If  doctors  and  apothe- 
caries speak  thus  we  should  value  their  remedies  without  imitating 
their  style. 

Nor  do  I  think  that  you  would  agree  that  it  would  be  speaking 
correctly  to  say,  tfest  yrele  qui  tombe,  c'est  poison  qu'il  a  pris, 
c'est  vin  que  vous  buvez.  But  I  think  that  you  would  always  say, 
c'est  de  la  grele,  &c. ;  c'est  du  poison,  &c. ;  c'est  du  vin,  &c. 

Their  remarks  on  these  expressions,  il  vit  en  philosophe,  &c., 
which  are  used  sometimes  absolutely  and  sometimes  with  qui,  as, 
il  vit  en  philosophe  qui  suit  Epicure,  appeared  to  me  very  good ; 
but  I  find  a  difficulty  in  the  reason  they  give  for  them.  They  say 
that  some  of  these  expressions  are  indeterminate  and  others  deter- 
minate ;  that  the  indeterminate  do  not  take  the  qui,  and  that  the 
others  do.  But  it  seems  to  me  that  this  is  giving  for  a  reason  the 
thing  itself  for  which  we  are  seeking  the  reason.  For  it  is  incon- 
testable that  the  qui  which  is  joined  to  a  word  without  the  article 
determines  its  signification;  and  thus  it  is  the  qui  itself  which 
determines  the  expressions  in  which  it  is  found,  and  which 
without  it  would  not  be  determined.  So  that  it  must  not  be  said 
that  it  is  because  they  are  determined  that  they  take  the  qui,  since, 
on  the  contrary,  they  are  only  determined  because  they  have  a  qui. 


I2O  Port-Royal  Education. 


And,  in  fact,  if  this  rule  were  good,  the  rule  would  never  be 
broken  by  putting  qui  after  a  noun  without  the  article ;  since,  the 
qui  making  the  expression  determinate,  we  should  always  be 
making  an  exception  to  the  rule. 

Thus,  if  we  could  say,  c'est  un  effet  d' }  avarice,  qui  est  la  plus 
injuste  des  passions,  or  qui  le  possede  depuis  longtemps,  we  might 
say,  il  a  ete  enleve  par  violence,  qui  est  tout  d  fait  cruelle.  For  we 
might  always  give  this  reason,  that  these  expressions  are  good 
because  they  are  determinate,  whereas,  what  makes  them  bad 
is  that  they  are  determined  by  the  qui,  the  noun  not  being  deter- 
mined by  the  article.  Therefore,  as  far  as  possible,  the  article 
should  be  used  with  the  noun,  when  we  wish  it  to  be  followed  by 
qui.  I  say  as  far  as  possible,  because  there  are  combinations 
in  which  the  article  cannot  be  used.  And  then,  in  such  a  case  of 
necessity,  we  can  put  the  qui  or  an  adjective,  when  we  wish 
to  determine  the  general  noun  that  we  are  using.  Now  I  think 
that  one  of  these  combinations  is  when  the  particle  en  is  used 
in  the  sense  of  the  Latin  ut,  and  not  in  that  of  in.  For  when  it 
is  taken  for  in  the  article  may  be  used ;  il  est  alle  en  un  pays 
Stranger;  il  est  en  la  ville  $  Amiens.  But  in  the  sense  of 
ut,  usage  does  not  allow  us  to  use  the  article;  vivit  ut  philosophus, 
il  vit  en  philosophe,  and  not  il  vit  en  un  philosophe;  il  donne 
en  roi,  il  agit  en  politique.  Thus,  when  we  wish  to  determine 
these  expressions  it  is  done  with  qui  ;  il  agit  en  politique  qui  sait 
gouverner  ;  because  on  the  one  hand  it  was  necessary  to  be  able  to 
determine  them,  and  on  the  other  the  article  could  not  be  used,  as 
it  always  should  be  when  it  is  possible.  And  thus  I  can  say  with- 
out determining,  il  lui  a  gagne  son  argent  par  fourberie.  But  if  I 
wish  to  determine  this  fourberie  I  cannot  do  so  simply  by  adding 
qui,  il  a  gagne  son  argent  par  fourberie,  qui  est  horrible,  but  must 
also  add  the  article  to  fourberie,  par  une  fourberie  qui  est  horrible. 
Whence  it  seems  that  we  should  conclude  .that,  if  we  use  qui  in 
the  other  expressions,  en  philosophe,  en  roi,  although  the  noun  has 
no  article,  it  is  not  because  they  are  determined,  for  they  are 
so  only  by  the  qui  itself,  and  they  are  no  more  so  than  this 
one,  par  fourberie  qui  est  horrible;  but  it  is  by  a  necessity 
that  dispenses  with  the  rule,  because  they  are  not  capable  of 
taking  the  article. 


Arnauld ':    Questions  of  Grammar.  121 


There  remains,  Madam,  a  word  to  say  on  the  question  which 
was  the  object  of  this  resolution  of  the  Academy.  It  was  not  on 
the  general  rule  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  taking  that  for  granted,  it 
was  asked  why  this  expression  is  riot  contrary  to  it,  //  est  accuse  de 
crimes  qui  meritent  la  mort. 

These  gentlemen  answer,  as  they  had  done  in  the  preceding 
difficulty,  that  it  is  not  contrary  to  it,  because  it  is  only  used 
to  specify  the  nature  of  the  crimes,  which  is  done  by  adding  qui,  or 
an  epithet  which  virtually  contains  it.  But,  besides  what  I  have 
already  said  against  this  reason,  I  do  not  see,  if  it  is  true,  why  it 
does  not  take  place  in  the  singular  as  well  as  in  the  plural.  Those 
persons,  however,  who  wish  to  speak  correctly  will  not  say,  il  a  ete 
accuse  de  crime  qui  merite  la  mort;  but  il  a  ete  accuse  d'un 
crime  qui  merite  la  mort.  There  is  an  intention  to  specify  the 
nature  of  the  crime  in  the  singular  as  well  as  in  the  plural.  Why 
does  not  this  reason,  then,  dispense  from  putting  in  the  singular 
the  qui  without  the  article,  as  is  done  in  the  plural,  according  to 
the  opinion  of  these  gentlemen  1  This  difficulty,  Madam,  gave  me 
an  idea  which  I  submit  to  the  judgment  of  this  illustrious  society. 
I  think  that  the  article  un  has  a  plural,  not  formed  from  itself,  for 
we  do  not  say  uns,  unes,  but  taken  from  another  word,  which 
is  des  before  substantives,  and  de  when  the  adjective  precedes. 
What  inclines  me  to  think  so  is  that  in  every  case,  except 
the  genitive,  for  the  reason  that  we  shall  give  afterwards,  wher- 
ever un  is  put  in  the  singular  des  is  put  in  the  plural,  or  de  before 
adjectives,  as  I  have  already  said,  and  it  should  always  be  put  in 
all  those  cases  where  a  qui  is  added. 

Nominative. — Un  crime  qui  est  si  horrible  merite  la  mort,  des 
crimes  qui  sont  si  horribles,  &c. 

Dative. — II  a  eu  recours  a  un  crime  qui  merite  la  mort,  il  a  eu 
recours  a  des  crimes  qui  meritent,  &c. 

Accusative. — II  a  commis  un  crime  qui  merite  la  mort,  il  a 
commis  des  crimes  qui  meritent  la  mort. 

Ablative. — II  est  puni  pour  un  crime  qui  merite  la  mort,  il  est 
puni  pour  des  crimes  qui  meritent  la  mort. 

According  to  this  analogy,  as  a,  which  is  the  dative  particle, 
is  added  to  form  the  dative  of  this  article,  as  well  in  the 


122  Port- Royal  Education. 


singular  a  un  as  in  the  plural  a  des  ;  il  a  eu  recours  a  un  crime, 
il  a  eu  recours  a  des  crimes  ;  and  as  the  genitive  particle  de  is  also 
added  to  form  the  genitive  singular  d'un ;  il  est  accuse  d'un 
crime,  it  is  evident  that  the  genitive  plural  should  be  formed  in 
the  same  manner  by  adding  de  to  des,  or  de  ;  but  this  has  not 
been  done,  for  a  reason  which  causes  the  greater  number  of  the 
irregularities  of  languages,  namely,  disagreeable  sound.  For  de 
des,  and  still  more  de  de,  would  have  grated  on  the  ear,  which 
would  scarcely  have  supported  il  est  accuse  de  des  crimes,  or  il  est 
accuse  de  de  grands  crimes  ;  whereas  it  is  not  offended  by  hearing 
in  the  dative,  il  a  pardonne  a  des  criminels,  il  a  pardonne  a  de 
mechants  homines.  Thus,  Madam,  if  you  will  kindly  pardon 
me  this  little  Latin  sentence,  which  M.  Yalant  will  explain  to 
you,  impetratum  est  a  ratione  ut  peccare  suavitatis  causa  liceret. 1 
If  that  is  well  founded,  there  is  no  longer  any  difficulty  in  the 
question  proposed.  For  either  it  is  resolved,  as  in  the  preceding, 
by  the  impossibility  of  putting  the  article,  which  gives  liberty  to 
use  the  qui,  although  the  noun  has  no  article ;  or,  indeed,  we  may 
say  that  the  mere  difficulty  of  pronunciation  preventing  the  use 
of  the  articles  with  nouns  in  these  combinations,  the  article  is 
in  the  sense,  although  it  is  not  expressed. 

If  I  had  not  the  honour,  Madam,  of  knowing  you  as  well 
as  I  do  I  should  offer  you  many  excuses  for  having  importuned 
you  by  so  long  a  letter  upon  things  which  appear  very  small. 
But  I  know  that  you  will  not  judge  of  them  like  ordinary  people, 
and  that  you  consider  nothing  small  that  has  reference  to  the 
mind  and  reason.  And,  indeed,  since  speech  is  one  of  the  greatest 
endowments  of  man,  the  possession  of  this  endowment  in  the 
greatest  possible  perfection  must  not  be  despised,  namely,  not 
only  to  have  the  use  of  it,  but  also  to  know  the  reason. 

I  am,  &c. 
(Arnauld,  CEuvres,  t.  iv.  p.  125.) 

1  Reason  allows  a  fault  to  bo  made  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  ear. 


Arnauld:   Regulation  of  Studies.  123 


MEMOIR  OF   ARNAULD   ON   THE   REGULATION   OF 
STUDIES   IN  THE   HUMANITIES.1 

The  regulation  of  the  order  of  studies  should  be  considered 
both  from  the  end  proposed  and  from  the  means  employed  to 
attain  it;  for  among  the  various  ends  that  might  be  proposed,  it 
is  necessary  to  choose  those  which  are  of  the  greatest,  most 
general,  and  most  lasting  utility.  And  among  the  different 
means  that  may  be  adopted,  those  which  lead  the  most  directly 
and  easily  to  it  should  be  employed. 

After  having  censured  exercises  in  versification,  amplification, 
and  declamation,  themes  and  "empty  phrases  void  of  sense,  in 
order  to  make  them  learn  rules  which  might  be  taught  viva  voce," 
theatrical  representations,  dictated  lectures,  and  the  infrequent 
reading  of  authors,  he  proposes  the  following  remedies  : — 

"  1.  The  examination  of  scholars,  in  order  to  promote  them 
from  one  class  to  another,  should  only  consist  in  seeing  if  they 
thoroughly  understand  the  authors  they  have  been  reading  in  the 
class  from  which  they  wish  to  remove;  without  which  they 
should  be  retained  in  it  with  inflexible  rigour,  unless  they  are 
found  to  be  incapable  of  doing  more  or  better. 

"2.  An  entire  hour  should  be  given  to  the  explanation  of 
an  author  every  time  the  class  meets,  morning  and  afternoon ; 
and  this  exercise  should  always  be  preferred  to  every  other,  and 
never  omitted. 

"  3.  It  is,  above  all,  very  important  to  divide  this  explanation 
into  different  portions,  and  oblige  the  scholars  to  give  an  account 
in  Latin  and  in  French  of  what  has  been  explained  to  them. 
They  would  be  accustomed  without  trouble  to  take  the  turn  of 
good  Latinity  by  always  making  them  speak  like  the  best  authors, 
and  they  would  acquire  that  spirit  of  analysis  so  necessary  in  all 
positions.  .  .  . 

"4.  The  scholars  should  question  themselves  mutually,  and 
correct  one  another  with  politeness ;  firstly,  on  the  substance  of 
what  has  been  translated  during  the  week  ;  secondly,  on  the  most 

1  Although  this  memoir  treats  of  classical  studies,  judicious  advice  on 
teaching  will  he  found  in  it,  of  which  our  teachers  can  make  good  use  in 
primary  instruction. 


124  Port-Royal  Education. 


remarkable  thoughts  and  the  finest  turns  of  language ;  thirdly,  on 
the  explanation  of  certain  passages  that  the  teacher  may  have 
thought  necessary  to  give  in  a  few  words. 

"  5.  The  regent  should  be  careful  to  make  them  mark  in  the 
margin,  in  different  ways,  the  sentences  and  the  fine  thoughts,  and 
generally  all  that  is  noticeable  in  the  authors,  then  to  review  them 
after  the  reading  is  finished,  and  then  to  sum  up  the  whole  at  the 
end  of  each  week. 

"6.  Places  should  only  be  awarded  every  month,  or  every 
fortnight,  by  the  examination  of  those  who  have  succeeded  best 
in  all  the  exercises,  either  viva  voce  or  by  written  translation,  not 
of  French  into  Latin,  but  of  Latin  into  French,  at  least  in  the 
four  lower  classes ;  for  what  sort  of  Latin  can  really  be  expected 
from  those  who  do  not  yet  know  that  language  ] 

"  7.  Without  excluding  compositions  for  which  prizes  are  offered, 
the  chief  prizes  will  be  distributed  to  those  who  have  most  dis- 
tinguished themselves  during  the  first  six  months,  or  the  whole 
year,  if  they  are  given  only  once ;  and  by  this  means  the  hopes 
of  all  the  scholars  will  be  excited.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
to  publish  the  names  of  those  who  nearly  succeeded  in  gaining 
them;  but  the  first  prizes  should  be  given  to  those  who  have  shown 
most  religion  and  whose  morals  are  irreproachable.  Those  who 
have  made  efforts  to  imitate  these  should  also  be  mentioned.  The 
heart  should  be  rewarded  before  the  head.  Besides  books  that 
will  be  explained  in  class,  a  book  should  be  given  to  the  scholars 
to  read  privately,  prescribing  the  same  book  to  the  whole  class ; 
and  they  should  be  compelled,  as  far  as  possible,  to  give  to  it  every 
day  an  hour  of  their  private  study. 

"  8.  In  order  to  induce  them  to  give  more  attention  to  it,  one 
day  in  the  week  should  be  set  apart  to  review  this  particular 
book,  when  the  regent,  who  will  have  read  and  annotated  the 
book,  will  question  the  scholars  on  the  difficult  expressions  and 
fine  thoughts  which  they  ought  to  have  remarked  in  it,  in  order 
to  make  them  accurate  and  judicious. 

"9.  In  order  to  teach  elocution,  beginning  from  the  lower 
classes,  it  is  useful  to  make  two  scholars  tell  a  short  story  every 
day,  which  they  may  take  from  Valerius  Maximus,  or  Plutarch,  or 
any  book  they  like,  leaving  them  the  choice ;  and  those  must  be 


A  man  Id:   Regulation  of  Studies.  125 


judged  the  best  who  make  the  recital  in  the  most  free  and  natural 
manner,  and  most  in  the  spirit  of  the  author,  without  confining 
themselves  to  the  same  terms  and  expressions.  This  story  should 
be  told  in  French  in  the  three  lower  classes,  setting  them  French 
books.  A  very  short  piece  of  these  authors  will  be  given  them 
to  recite,  and  all  will  be  required  to  read  every  day  a  certain 
portion  of  the  history  of  France,  and  to  be  ready  to  recite  it  as 
well  as  they  can.1 

"10.  A  short  time  only  should  be  given  to  the  recitation  of  the 
lessons  that  have  been  set,  and  which  should  be  very  short;  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  is  sufficient,  because  this  is  one  of  the  things 
that  cause  much  loss  of  time.  When  the  regent  explains  the 
lessons  he  should  confine  himself  to  making  them  well  understood 
without  many  words. 

"11.  The  regents  will  never  teach  any  verse  or  declamation  of 
their  own  making,  nor  dictate  any  rhetoric  that  they  have  com- 
posed. They  should  explain  especially  Aristotle  and  Quintilian 
.  .  .  with  the  books  of  Cicero  .  .  .  the  best  part  of  the  time  is 
lost  in  dictating. 

"  13.  It  would  be  still  better2  to  read  out  distinctly  the  Latin  of 
what  has  been  dictated  to  them  in  French,  and  to  make  them 
compose  at  once  from  the  Latin  they  have  just  heard.  The 
model  is  correct,  their  time  is  spared,  and,  repeating  this  short 
exercise,  they  are  led  by  use  to  speak  Latin  well,  without  much 
hesitation.3 

"  14.  Useless  methods,  for  the  most  part  ill-conceived,  ill- 
digested,  and  wearisome  for  the  young,  should  not  be  set  to  be 
learnt  by  heart.  They  should  be  taught  viva  voce  and  by 

1  Rollin,  the  recognized  inheritor  of  the  traditions  of  Port-Royal,  ought  to 
have  thoroughly  assimilated  this  formal  recommendation  of  Arnauld,  and  not 
have  permitted  himself  to  write  this  phrase,  a  strange  one  in  the  mouth  of 
an  ex-rector  of  the  University  of  Paris :    "  Young  people  have  no  time  to 
learn  the  History  of  France  !  " 

2  Instead  of  giving  a  translation  to  be  put  into  Latin. 

3  Franklin  declares  that  he  had  no  other  master  for  composition.     About 
the  age  of  fifteen,  when  he  was  a  printer's  apprentice,  he  procured  an  odd 
volume  of  Addison's  Spectator,  read  an  article  in  it,  noted  the  principal  ideas, 
then,  a  few  days  after,  in  the  evening  or  the  morning,  before  work  or  on 
Sundays,  he  tried  to  reproduce  the  original,  which  served  him  for  a  key. 
This  exercise  may  safely  be  recommended  in  primary  schools,  and  in  classes 
for  adults. 


126  Port-Royal  Education. 

practice  what  are  called  rules,  and  only  set  in  the  lower  classes 
to  bring  them  up  as  a  small  history ;  and  according  as  a  noun  or 
a  v/6rb  is  met  with  out  of  the  general  rule,  the  attention  of  the 
scholars  should  be  called  to  it,  and  they  should  be  required  to 

/give  a  reason  for  it,  as  we  have  just  explained,  on  the  next  meet- 

|  ing  of  the  class. 

"18.  Lessons  and  translations  should  only  be  given  to  the 
juniors  and  composition  to  the  seniors  in  so  far  as  it  may  be 
reasonably  calculated  that  they  will  have  time  remaining  after 
reading  the  prescribed  authors.  This  article  is  more  important 
than  may  be  thought,  for  we  may  be  easily  misled  in  it.  Much 
is  thought  to  be  gained  by  overloading  the  children  with  lessons 
and  compositions.  There  is  no  greater  mistake.1  They  do  not 
know  the  value  of  the  time  sufficiently  to  make  good  use  of  it 
when  they  are  left  to  themselves.  They  are  in  no  hurry,  time 
flies,  the  clock  strikes;  hence  punishments,  all  is  sadness,  and 
disgust  finally  spoils  the  whole.  Those  who  learn  more  easily, 
and  have  better  memories,  will  be  set  to  do  more  than  the  others, 
by  attaching  rewards  for  it. 

"19.  It  is  usually  lost  time  to  set  them  to  compose  verses  at 
home.  There  may  be  two  or  three  scholars  out  of  seventy  or 
eighty  from  whom  something  may  be  drawn.  The  rest  lose 
heart,  or  torment  themselves  to  do  nothing  of  any  value.  A 
subject  may  be  prescribed  to  those  who  show  taste  and  facility, 
and  the  others  may  be  set  something  according  to  their  ability. 
It  may,  however,  be  proposed  to  all  to  compose  then  and  there 
a  small  piece  of  verse  of  which  the  subject  is  given,  each  having 
the  liberty  of  saying  how  he  will  turn  the  matter  of  each  line. 
An  epithet  then  comes  from  one  corner,  a  more  appropriate  one 
from  another;  with  permission  to  speak,  which  is  asked  and 
obtained  by  a  sign  only,  in  order  to  avoid  confusion,  they  judge, 
criticise,  and  give  a  reason  for  their  choice.  Those  who  have  the 
least  energy  try  their  utmost,  and  all  strive  at  least  to  distinguish 
themselves.  This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  exercises  to  please 
them,  and  to  form  at  least  those  who  have  some  talent.'' 

1  An  excellent  observation.  "We  are  always  too  much  inclined  to  think 
that  the  child  is  a  vase  that  cannot  be  sufficiently  filled.  It  is  a  soul  that 
must  be  formed. 


Arnauld :   Regulation  of  Studies.  127 

Art.  22.  He  inscribes  the  History  of  France  among  the  con- 
ditions for  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts. 

"...  what  is  gained  by  the  exclusion  of  verses  in  the  upper 
classes,  of  themes  in  the  lower,  and,  in  fact,  of  lessons  which 
produce  nothing  of  any  value,  will  give  time  which  will  be  much 
more  agreeably  employed  in  reading  for  repetition  and  in  learning 
set  passages  by  heart,  and  for  private  preparation  of  what  has  been 
set  in  Latin  grammar  and  rhetoric,  according  to  the  classes  to 
which  one  or  two  rules  of  grammar  have  been  set,  on  which  the 
class  will  be  questioned  at  their  next  meeting,  in  the  evening  or 
morning,  without  compelling  anyone  to  learn  them  word  for 
word.1  They  will  the  more  readily  give  themselves  up  to  this 
study,  which  will  even  be  useful  in  teaching  them  the  art  of 
reasoning  in  a  small  way ;  and  more  will  be  gained  in  this  manner 
than  would  have  been  from  the  other. 

"  Objection. — By  making  fewer  compositions  they  neither  learn 
to  write  nor  speak  Latin. 

"  Reply. — We  answer  that  the  scholars  will  most  certainly  learn 
much  more  by  reading  much,  and  speaking  frequently  after  the 
best  authors,  than  by  writing  many  dictations  and  incorrect 
expressions  to  which  they  become  accustomed,  and  which  must 
be  corrected.  Not  being  in  a  position  to  produce  solid  thoughts, 
they  do  nothing  else  in  all  these  school  compositions  but  contract 
the  habit  of  bad  speaking  and  bad  thinking.  On  the  contrary, 
by  filling  their  minds  with  good  models  their  judgment  is  formed. 

"  Objection. — The  regents  do  not  acquire  practice  if  the  liberty 
of  speaking  is  taken  from  them. 

"Reply. — We  answer,  they  may  speak  as  much  as  they  like, 
provided  that  it  be  not  in  the  class  time  set  apart  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  scholars.  So  much  talk  is  not  necessary  to  point 
out  the  beauties  of  an  author."  (Arnauld,  CEuvres,  t.  xli.  p.  85.) 

1  The  definitions  and  rules,  however,  require  great  accuracy.  When  they 
are  well  understood,  it  is  very  easy  to  retain  the  exact  formula,  which  is 
preferable,  and  is  not  useless  to  intellectual  education. 


128  Port- Royal  Education. 


POBT-KOYAL  LOGIC. 

FIRST   DISCOURSE,    SETTING   FORTH   THE   DESIGN 
OF   THIS    NEW   LOGIC. 

Nothing  is  more  estimable  than  good  sense  and  accuracy  of 
mind  in  discriminating  the  true  from  the  false.  All  other  mental 
qualities  have  limited  uses ;  but  accuracy  of  reasoning  is  useful 
generally  in  all  parts  and  employments  of  life.  It  is  not  alone 
in  the  sciences  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  truth  from  error ; 
but  also  in  the  greater  number  of  the  subjects  on  which  men 
speak,  and  the  affairs  of  which  they  treat.  Almost  everywhere 
there  are  different  courses,  some  true,  some  false ;  and  it  is  the 
part  of  reason  to  make  choice  between  them.  Those  who  choose 
well  are  those  who  have  sound  minds,  those  who  take  the  wrong 
course  are  those  whose  minds  are  unsound ;  and  this  is  the  chief 
and  most  important  distinction  that  can  be  made  between  the 
qualities  of  men's  minds. 

Thus  we  should  set  ourselves  principally  to  form  our  judgment, 
and  make  it  as  accurate  as  possible ;  and  the  greater  part  of  our 
studies  should  tend  to  this.  We  use  reason  as  an  instrument  to 
acquire  the  sciences,  but  we  should,  on  the  contrary,  use  the 
sciences  as  an  instrument  for  perfecting  the  reason ; 1  accuracy 
of  mind  being  infinitely  more  important  than  all  speculative 
knowledge,  which  we  may  attain  by  means  of  the  most  accurate 
and  solid  sciences.  And  this  should  lead  sensible  persons  to  take 
them  up  only  in  so  far  as  they  can  serve  to  this  end,  and  to  make 
an  essay  of  them  simply,  and  not  employ  the  whole  strength  of 
their  minds.  .  .  . 

This  care  and  study  are  so  much  the  more  necessary,  that  it  is 
strange  how  rare  a  quality  this  accuracy  of  judgment  is.  We 
meet  everywhere  with  unsound  minds  which  have  scarcely  any 

1  This  pedagogic  point  of  view  is  excellent ;  but,  without  neglecting  it, 
we  must  attach  more  value  to  the  acquisition  of  the  sciences  than  Tort- 
Royal  does  ;  they  are  not  only  an  instrument  and  means  of  culture,  they 
are  also  an  aim  and  an  end.  To  learn  the  truth  is  the  most  legitimate 
employment  of  the  intellect.  They  are  besides,  as  Bacon  says,  the  only 
source  of  man's  power  over  nature,  and  the  most  effective  agents  of  civiliza- 
tion and  progress. 


Nicole :   Port-Royal  Logic.  1 29 

clear  perception  of  the  truth ;  who  take  everything  the  wrong 
way ;  who  are  satisfied  with  bad  reasons,  and  wish  to  satisfy 
others  with  them ;  who  are  carried  away  by  slight  appearances ; 
who  are  always  in  excess  and  extremes ;  who  have  no  firm  hold 
on  the  truths  which  they  know,  because  it  is  rather  by  chance 
than  real  knowledge  that  they  are  attached  to  them ;  or  who 
stop  short,  on  the  contrary,  at  the  evidence  of  their  senses,  with 
so  much  obstinacy,  that  they  will  hear  nothing  that  may  un- 
deceive them ;  who  rashly  decide  on  what  they  are  ignorant  of, 
what  they  do  not  understand,  and  what  no  one,  perhaps,  has  ever 
understood ;  who  make  no  difference  between  one  way  of  speak- 
ing and  another,1  or  who  judge  of  the  truth  of  things  only  by 
the  tone  of  voice :  he  who  speaks  fluently  and  gravely  is  right ; 
he  who  has  some  difficulty  in  explaining  himself,  or  who  shows 
some  warmth,  is  wrong ;  they  know  no  more  about  it  than  this. 

Therefore  there  are  no  absurdities  so  gross  as  not  to  find 
supporters.  Whoever  means  to  deceive  the  world  is  certain  to 
find  persons  very  willing  to  be  deceived ;  and  the  most  ridiculous 
nonsense  always  finds  congenial  minds.  After  seeing  so  many 
persons  infatuated  with  the  follies  of  judicial  astrology,2  and  even 
grave  persons  treating  this  matter  seriously,  we  need  be  astonished 
at  nothing.  There  is  a  constellation  in  the  heavens  which  it  has 
pleased  some  persons  to  name  the  Balance,  and  which  resembles 
a  balance  as  much  as  it  does  a  wind-mill ;  the  balance  is  the 
symbol  of  justice,  hence  those  who  are  born  under  this  con- 
stellation will  be  just  and  equitable.3  There  are  three  other 
signs  of  the  Zodiac,  which  are  named,  one  the  Earn,  another  the 
Bull,  another  the  Goat,  and  which  might  just  as  well  have  been 
called  Elephant,  Crocodile,  and  Rhinoceros.  The  ram,  the  bull, 
and  the  goat  are  ruminating  animals,  hence  those  who  take 

1    The  opposition  is   still  clearer  in   that  very  sensible  judgment  that 
Moliere  puts  in  the  mouth  of  Chrysale,  who  is  laughing  at  Trissotin  : 
We  seek  what  he  said  after  he  has  spoken. 

(Les  Femmes  savantes,  act  ii.  sc.  7.) 

8  "This  is,"  said  Bailly,  "the  longest  malady  that  has  afflicted  human 
reason  ;  it  is  known  to  have  lasted  fifty  centuries."  (Hist,  de  T astronomie. ) 

3  Louis  XIII.  was  surnamed  the  Just,  not  by  the  gratitude  of  his  people, 
but  from  the  day  of  his  birth,  because  he  was  born  under  the  sign  of  the 
Balance  ! 

K 


130  Port-Royal  Education. 

medicine  when  the  moon  is  in  these  constellations  run  the  risk 
of  vomiting  it  again.  However  extravagant  these  reasonings  may 
be,  there  are  persons  who  promulgate  them,  and  others  who  suffer 
themselves  to  be  persuaded  by  them.1 

This  unsoundness  of  mind  is  not  only  the  cause  of  the  errors 
that  are  mixed  up  in  the  sciences,  but  also  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  faults  that  are  committed  in  civil  life,  unjust  quarrels, 
ill-founded  lawsuits,  rash  advice,  and  ill-concerted  enterprises. 
There  are  few  of  these  things  which  have  not  their  source  in 
some  error  or  fault  of  judgment,  so  that  there  is  no  defect  which 
we  have  more  interest  in  correcting. 

But  it  is  as  difficult  to  succeed  in  this  correction  as  it  is 
desirable,  because  it  depends  very  much  on  the  measure  of 
intelligence  we  have  at  birth.  Common  sense  is  not  so  common 
a  quality  as  is  supposed.2  There  is  an  infinite  number  of  coarse 
and  stupid  minds3  that  cannot  be  amended  by  giving  them  a 
knowledge  of  the  truth,  but  only  by  keeping  them  to  the  things 
that  are  within  their  capacity,  and  preventing  them  passing  judg- 
ment on  what  they  are  not  capable  of  understanding.  It  is  true, 
nevertheless,  that  many  of  the  false  judgments  of  men  do  not 

La  Fontaine  protested  against  this  popular  error  in  the  fable  of  the 


I  do  not  think  that  Nature 
Has  tied  her  hands,  and  ties  ours  still 
So  far  as  to  write  our  fate  in  the  skies  : 

It  depends  on  a  conjuncture 

Of  places,  persons  and  times  ; 
Not  of  conjunctions  of  all  the  mountebanks. 
This  shepherd  and  this  king  are  under  the  same  planet ; 
The  one  bears  the  sceptre,  the  other  the  crook. 

Jupiter  willed  it  so. 
What  is  Jupiter  ?    An  inanimate  body. 

Whence  comes  it  then  that  his  influence 
Acts  differently  on  these  two  men  ? 
Then,  how  can  it  penetrate  to  our  world  ? 
How  pass  the  deep  regions  of  the  air, 
Mars,  the  Sun  and  the  infinite  void  ? 
An  atom  may  turn  it  aside  in  its  course  : 
Where  will  the  casters  of  horoscopes  find  it  again  ?  .  .  . 

(LA  FONTAINE,  Fables,  viii.  16.) 

2  In  spite  of  its  name,  common  sense  is  rare.  (ANDRIEUX.) 

3  Here  we  recognize  Nicole,  the  author  of  the  Traitt  de  la  faiblesse  de 
rhomme,  who  indulges  himself  too  much  in  painting  the  mass  of  his  fellow- 
creatures  as  "  steeped  in  stupidity."  (Chap,  x.) 


Nicole:   Port-Royal  Logic.  131 

spring  from  this  principle,  and  are  only  caused  by  hastiness  of 
mind  and  want  of  attention,  which  cause  men  to  judge  rashly 
what  they  only  know  in  a  confused  and  obscure  manner.  The 
little  love  that  men  have  for  truth  is  the  reason  that  they  take 
no  trouble,  for  the  most  part,  to  distinguish  the  true  from  the 
false.  They  allow  all  sorts  of  reasonings  and  maxims  to  enter 
their  minds ;  they  prefer  to  consider  them  as  true  rather  than  to 
examine  them.  If  they  do  not  understand  them  they  are  willing 
to  believe  that  others  understand  them  well ;  and  thus  they  load 
their  memories  with  a  host  of  things  false,  obscure,  and  not 
understood,  and  then  reason  from  these  principles,  scarcely  paying 
attention  to  what  they  say  or  what  they  think. 

Vanity  and  presumption  contribute  still  more  to  this  defect. 
They  think  there  is  some  disgrace  in  doubt  and  ignorance,  and 
prefer  to  speak  and  decide  at  a  venture  rather  than  to  acknowledge 
that  they  are  not  sufficiently  informed  on  the  matter  to  give  a 
decision.  We  are  all  of  us  full  of  ignorance  and  errors ;  yet, 
nevertheless,  it  is  the  greatest  trouble  in  life  to  draw  from  men 
this  confession  so  true  and  so  conformable  to  their  natural  state : 
I  am  wrong,  and  know  nothing  about  the  matter. 

There  are  others,  on  the  contrary,  who,  having  sufficient  intelli- 
gence to  know  that  there  are  very  many  things  obscure  and 
uncertain,  and  wishing,  by  another  sort  of  vanity,  to  show  that 
they  do  not  allow  themselves  to  be  carried  away  by  popular 
credulity,  pride  themselves  on  maintaining  that  nothing  is  certain. 
They  thus  relieve  themselves  of  the  trouble  of  examining  them ; 
and,  on  this  vicious  principle,  they  throw  doubt  on  the  most 
certain  truths  and  on  religion  itself.  This  is  the  source  of 
Pyrrhonism,  another  extravagance  of  the  human  mind,  which, 
appearing  contrary  to  the  rashness  of  those  who  believe  and 
decide  on  everything,  nevertheless  springs  from  the  same  source, 
namely,  want  of  attention.  For  if  the  one  set  will  not  take  the 
trouble  to  discriminate  errors,  the  other  will  not  be  at  the  pains 
to  examine  the  truth  with  the  care  necessary  to  discover  the 
evidence  for  it.  The  slightest  glimmer  suffices  to  persuade  one 
set  of  things  very  false,  and  to  make  the  other  doubt  of  the 
most  certain  things;  but  the  same  defect  of  application  produces 
in  both  such  very  different  results. 


132  Port- Royal  Education. 

True  reason  sets  all  things  in  their  proper  rank ;  it  causes  the 
doubtful  to  be  doubted,  rejects  those  which  are  false,  and  honestly 
recognizes  those  which  are  evident,  without  pausing  over  the 
empty  reasonings  of  the  Pyrrhonists,  which  do  not  destroy,  even 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  propose  them,  the  reasonable  assurance 
we  have  of  things  that  are  certain.  No  one  ever  seriously  doubted 
that  there  is  an  earth,  a  sun,  and  a  moon,  nor  that  the  whole  is 
greater  than  its  part.  We  can  say  outwardly,  with  our  mouth, 
that  we  doubt  of  these  things,  because  we  may  lie ;  but  we  cannot 
say  so  to  our  heart.  Thus  the  Pyrrhonists  are  not  a  sect  of  men 
who  are  convinced  of  what  they  say,  but  are  a  sect  of  liars.1 
Moreover,  in  speaking  of  their  opinions,  they  often  contradict 
themselves,  their  reason  not  being  able  to  agree  with  their  words, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Montaigne,  who  endeavoured  to  revive  this  sect 
in  the  last  century.  .  .  . 

SECOND    DISCOURSE,    CONTAINING   A   REPLY   TO   THE   PRINCIPAL 
OBJECTIONS    MADE   AGAINST    THIS    LOGIC. 

Some  persons  have  objected  to  the  title  The  Art  of  Thinking, 
instead  of  which  they  would  have  written,  The  Art  of  Reasoning 
well ;  but  we  beg  them  to  consider  that,  the  end  of  logic  being 
to  give  rules  for  all  the  operations  of  the  mind,  as  well  for  simple 
ideas  as  for  judgments  and  arguments,  there  was  scarcely  any 
other  word  that  included  all  these  different  operations;  and 
certainly  the  word  thought  includes  them  all ;  for  simple  ideas 
are  thoughts,  judgments  are  thoughts,  and  arguments  are  thoughts. 
We  might,  indeed,  have  said,  The  Art  of  Thinking  well ;  but  this 
addition  was  unnecessary,  being  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  word 
art,  which  in  itself  signifies  a  method  of  doing  something  well, 
as  Aristotle  himself  remarks.  Hence  it  suffices  to  say  the  art  of 
painting,  the  art  of  reckoning,  because  it  is  supposed  that  no  art 
is  required  to  paint  badly  or  to  reckon  badly. 

1  This,  in  a  work  on  the  art  of  thinking,  is  a  very  bad  example  of 
reasoning.  Insults  are  never  reasons,  and  the  good  faith  of  opponents 
should  never  be  doubted.  Some  years  later  Nicole  will  give  the  sage 
advice  "to  put  our  mind  in  a  condition  to  calmly  support  the  opinions 
of  others,  which  appear  to  us  to  be  wrong,  in  order  to  oppose  them  only 
with  a  desire  of  being  useful  to  them."  See  p.  185. 


Nicole:   Port- Royal  Logic.  133 

A  much  more  important  objection  has  been  made  against  the 
great  number  of  examples  drawn  from  different  sciences  that  are 
found  in  this  logic ;  and  since  it  attacks  its  whole  design  and  thus 
gives  us  an  opportunity  of  explaining  it,  we  will  examine  it  with 
more  care.  Of  what  use,  they  say,  is  this  medley  of  rhetoric, 
ethics,  physics,  metaphysics,  and  geometry  1  When  we  expect  to 
find  the  rules  of  logic  we  are  suddenly  carried  off  to  the  highest 
sciences,  without  the  authors  knowing  if  we  have  learnt  them. 
Ought  they  not  to  suppose,  on  the  contrary,  that  if  we  already 
had  this  knowledge  we  should  not  want  this  logic  1  And  would 
it  not  have  been  better  to  give  us  one  quite  simple  and  plain,  in 
which  the  rules  were  explained  by  examples  taken  from  common 
things,  than  to  load  them  with  so  much  matter  as  to  deaden  them  ? 

But  those  who  reason  in  this  way  have  not  sufficiently  con- 
sidered that  a  book  can  scarcely  have  a  greater  defect  than  not 
to  be  read,  since  it  is  only  of  use  to  those  who  read  it ;  and  thus 
everything  that  contributes  to  make  a  book  read  contributes  also 
to  make  it  useful.  Now  it  is  certain  that,  if  we  had  followed 
their  opinion,  and  only  written  a  dry  logic  with  the  usual  examples 
of  animal  and  horse,  however  accurate  and  methodical  it  might 
have  been,  it  would  only  have  added  to  the  great  number  of 
others,  of  which  the  world  is  full,  that  are  not  read.  Whereas 
it  is  precisely  that  collection  of  different  things  that  has  given 
some  reputation  to  this  one,  and  caused  it  to  be  read  with  a  little 
less  tedium  than  the  others. 

But,  nevertheless,  our  principal  aim  was  not  to  attract  people  to 
read  it  by  making  it  more  amusing  than  the  ordinary  books  on 
logic.  We  claim,  in  addition,  to  have  followed  the  most  natural 
and  advantageous  mode  of  treating  this  art  by  remedying,  as  far 
as  possible,  an  inconvenience  which  rendered  its  study  almost 
useless. 

For  experience  shows  that  of  a  thousand  young  men  who  learn 
logic  there  are  not  ten  who  know  anything  of  it  six  months  after 
they  have  finished  their  course.  Now  the  real  cause  of  this 
forge tfulness,  or  this  negligence,  which  is  so  common,  seems  to 
be  that  all  the  matters  treated  of  in  logic  being  of  themselves 
very  abstract  and  far  removed  from  ordinary  usage,  they  are 
illustrated  by  uninteresting  examples,  such  as  are  never  spoken 


134  Port- Royal  Education. 

of  elsewhere.  Thus  the  mind,  which  has  some  difficulty  in 
attending  to  it,  has  nothing  to  fix  its  attention,  and  easily  loses 
all  the  ideas  that  it  had  acquired,  because  they  are  never  renewed 
by  practice. 

Besides,  as  these  ordinary  examples  do  not  clearly  show  how 
this  art  can  be  applied  to  anything  useful,  they  are  accustomed 
to  confine  logic  to  itself,  without  extending  it  further ; x  whereas 
it  is  only  made  to  be  an  instrument  for  the  other  sciences ;  so  that 
as  they  have  never  seen  its  real  use  they  never  use  it,  and  are 
very  glad  to  get  rid  of  it  as  a  trivial  and  useless  knowledge. 

We  have  thought,  then,  that  the  best  remedy  for  this  dis- 
advantage was  not  to  separate  logic  so  much  as  is  usually  done 
from  the  other  sciences  for  which  it  is  intended,  but  to  join  it  in 
such  a  way,  by  means  of  examples,  to  solid  knowledge,  that  the 
rules  and  their  application  may  be  seen  at  the  same  time,  in  order 
that  we  may  learn  to  judge  of  the  sciences  by  logic  and  retain 
logic  by  means  of  these  sciences. 

Thus,  so  far  from  this  diversity  suppressing  the  rules,  nothing 
can  more  contribute  to  the  understanding  of  them  and  cause  their 
retention,  because  they  are  too  subtle  by  themselves  to  make 
an  impression  on  the  mind,  if  they  are  not  attached  to  something 
more  agreeable  and  more  obvious. 

In  order  to  render  this  diversity  more  useful,  the  examples 
have  not  been  taken  at  random  from  these  sciences;  but  the 
most  important  points  have  been  chosen,  and  those  which  might 
best  serve  as  rules  and  principles  for  discovering  the  truth  in 
other  matters  which  we  have  not  been  able  to  treat  of.  ... 

It  only  remains  to  answer  a  more  unworthy  complaint  that 
some  persons  make,  namely,  that  examples  of  defective  definitions 
and  bad  arguments  have  been  extracted  from  Aristotle,  which 
appears  to  them  to  arise  from  a  secret  desire  to  depreciate  this 
philosopher. 

But  they  would  never  have  formed  so  inequitable  a  judgment 


1  Ramus  had  already  complained  of  the  little  practical  utility  of  the 
exercises:  "They  have  never  regarded  their  rules  but  under  the  shadow 
of  scholastic  disputations  ;  they  have  never  brought  logic  into  the  dust  and 
sunshine  of  every-day  use  ;  they  have  never  called  it  into  the  conflict  of 
human  examples." 


Nicole:   Port- Royal  Logic.  135 

if  they  had  sufficiently  considered  the  true  rules  that  should  be 
followed  in  quoting  examples  of  errors,  and  which  we  have  had 
in  view  in  quoting  Aristotle. 

Firstly,  experience  shows  that  the  majority  of  examples  that 
are  usually  given  are  not  very  useful,  and  make  little  impression 
on  the  mind,  because  they  are  formed  at  pleasure,  and  are  so 
plain  and  palpable  that  it  is  thought  impossible  to  fall  into  them. 
It  is,  then,  advantageous,  in  order  to  cause  what  is  said  of  these 
faults  to  be  remembered  and  the  faults  to  be  avoided,  to  choose 
real  examples  taken  from  some  eminent  author,  whose  reputation 
excites  us  the  more  to  beware  of  this  kind  of  mistakes  to  which 
we  see  that  the  greatest  men  are  liable. 

Besides,  as  our  aim  should  be  to  make  all  we  write  as  useful 
as  possible,  we  must  endeavour  to  choose  examples  of  faults  of 
which  it  is  proper  not  to  be  ignorant,  for  it  would  be  very  useless 
to  load  the  memory  with  all  the  reveries  of  Flud,1  Van-Helmont,2 
and  Paracelsus.3  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  seek  these  examples 
in  authors  so  celebrated,  that  we  are  obliged  in  some  sort  to 
know  them,  even  to  their  faults. 

Now  all  this  is  met  with  in  Aristotle;  for  nothing  can  more 
powerfully  lead  us  to  avoid  an  error  than  showing  that  such  a 
great  mind  fell  into  it ;  and  his  philosophy  has  become  so 
celebrated  through  the  great  number  of  meritorious  persons  who 
have  embraced  it,  that  it  is  necessary  to  know  what  defects  it 
might  have.  Thus,  as  it  was  judged  to  be  very  useful  that  those 
who  read  this  book  should  learn,  in  passing,  various  points  of  this 


1  Robert  Fludd,  an  English  physician  and  philosopher  (1574-1637),  fell 
into  the  errors  of  Alchemy.     Gassendi,  Mersenne,  and  Kepler  did  him  the 
honour  of  refuting  him. 

2  Van-Helmont  (1577-1644),  born  at  Brussels,   chemist  and  physician. 
Gui-Patin  is  never  tired  of  calling  him  a  wretch,  ignorant,  a  mountebank, 
a  public  impostor,  and  a  sorry  rogue.     "He  passes  at  the  present  day,"  says 
Dr.  Reveille-Parise,  "for  one  of  the  greatest  physicians  that  ever  lived,  for 
the  boldness,  depth,   and  originality  of  his  conceptions,   in  spite  of  the 
oddity  of  his  language  and  a  certain  affectation  of  mystical  obscurity." 

3  Paracelsus  (1493-1541),  a  Swiss  physician.     "This  prince  of  mounte- 
banks," exclaims  again  the  irascible  Gui-Patin,   "and  shameless  impostor." 
While  a  professor  at  Bale,  he  publicly  burned  the  works  of  Avicenna  and 
Galen.      His  shoe-strings  knew  more  than  these  authors,  he  impudently 
asserted,  and  all  the  universities  knew  less  than  the  hairs  of  his  beard  !     He 
boasted  of  being  able  to  prolong  life  and  cure  incurable  diseases. 


136  Port- Royal  Edtication. 

philosophy,  and  that,  nevertheless,  it  is  never  useful  to  be  deceived, 
they  have  been  brought  forward  in  order  to  explain  them,  and 
the  error  that  has  been  found  has  been  noted  in  passing  in  order 
to  prevent  anyone  being  deceived. 

It  is  not,  then,  to  disparage  Aristotle,  but,  on  the  contrary,  to 
honour  him  as  much  as  possible  in  those  things  in  which  we  are 
not  of  his  opinion,  that  we  have  taken  examples  from  his  books ; 
and  it  is  plain,  besides,  that  the  points  on  which  he  has  been 
criticised  are  of  very  slight  importance,  and  do  not  touch  the 
foundation  of  his  philosophy,  which  no  one  had  any  intention 
of  attacking. 

If  several  excellent  things  which  are  found  throughout 
Aristotle's  books  have  not  been  quoted,  the  reason  is  that  they 
did  not  enter  into  the  subject  of  the  discourse ;  but  if  there  had 
been  occasion  to  do  so,  it  would  have  been  taken  with  pleasure, 
and  we  should  not  have  failed  to  award  the  just  praise  due  to 
him.  For  it  is  certain  that  Aristotle  had  a  vast  and  compre- 
hensive mind,  which  discovers  in  the  subjects  of  which  he  treats 
a  great  number  of  connections  and  consequences;  and  for  this 
reason  he  has  succeeded  so  well  in  what  he  has  said  on  the 
passions  in  the  second  book  of  his  Rhetoric. 

There  are,  besides,  several  beautiful  things  in  his  books  on 
Politics  and  Ethics,  in  his  Problems  and  in  the  History  of 
Animals.  And  although  there  may  be  some  confusion  in  his 
Analytics,  it  must,  nevertheless,  be  acknowledged  that  almost 
all  that  is  known  of  the  rules  of  logic  is  taken  from  it ;  so  that, 
in  fact,  there  is  no  author  from  whom  more  things  in  this  logic 
have  been  borrowed  than  from  Aristotle,  since  the  whole  body 
of  rules  belongs  to  him. 

It  is  true  that  his  Physics  appears  to  be  his  least  perfect  work, 
as  it  is  also  that  which  has  been  the  longest'  condemned  and 
forbidden  by  the  Church,  as  a  learned  author  has  shown  in  a 
book  written  expressly  for  this  purpose;1  but  yet  its  principal 
defect  is  not  that  it  is  false,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  is  too 
true,  and  teaches  us  only  things  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  be 


1  M.   de   Launoi,   a  doctor  of   the    Sorbonne    (1603-1678).      De  varia 
Aristotelis  in  Academia  Parisiensi  fortuna. 


Nicole:   Port-Royal  Logic.  137 

ignorant.  For  who  can  doubt  that  all  things  are  composed  of 
matter  and  of  a  certain  form  of  that  matter'?  Who  can  doubt 
that  matter,  in  order  to  acquire  a  new  manner  and  form,  must 
not  have  had  it  before,  that  is  to  say,  that  it  had  the  privation 
of  it?  Who  can  doubt,  in  fine,  those  other  metaphysical 
principles,  that  everything  depends  on  form,  that  matter  alone 
does  nothing,  that  there  are  place,  motion,  qualities,  and 
faculties'!  But  after  having  learnt  all  these  things,  it  does  not 
seem  that  we  have  learned  anything  new,  or  that  we  are  in  a 
position  to  give  a  reason  for  any  of  the  effects  in  nature. 

If  there  are  persons  who  assert  that  it  is  by  no  means  allowable 
for  a  man  to  say  that  he  is  not  of  Aristotle's  opinion,  it  would  be 
easy  to  show  them  that  this  scrupulousness  is  unreasonable. 

For  if  any  deference  is  due  to  certain  philosophers,  this  can 
only  be  for  two  reasons :  either  on  account  of  the  truth  that  they 
have  followed,  or  of  the  opinion  of  the  men  who  support  them. 

In  regard  to  the  truth,  respect  is  due  to  them  when  they 
are  right,  but  the  truth  cannot  oblige  us  to  respect  falsehood 
in  any  man,  whoever  he  be. 

The  general  consent  of  men  in  their  estimation  of  a  philosopher 
certainly  deserves  some  respect,  and  it  would  be  imprudent  to  run 
counter  to  it  without  using  great  precautions,  and  for  this  reason, 
that  by  attacking  what  is  generally  accepted,  a  man  renders 
himself  suspected  of  presumption  in  supposing  that  he  has  more 
intelligence  than  others. 

But  when  men  are  divided  touching  the  opinions  of  an  author, 
and  there  are  persons  of  eminence  on  either  side,  a  man  is  not 
obliged  to  show  this  reserve,  but  may  freely  declare  what  he 
approves  or  disapproves  in  those  books  with  regard  to  which  men 
of  letters  are  divided,  because  this  is  not  so  much  preferring 
his  own  opinion  to  that  of  this  author  and  his  supporters,  as 
taking  the  side  of  those  who  are  against  him  on  this  point. 

This  is  exactly  the  position  in  which  Aristotle's  philosophy 
is  at  the  present  time.  As  it  has  had  various  fortunes,  having 
been  at  one  time  generally  rejected  and  at  another  generally 
received,  it  is  now  reduced  to  a  position  that  holds  the  mean 
between  these  extremes ;  it  is  upheld  by  many  learned  men  and 
is  opposed  by  others  of  no  less  reputation,  and  every  day  men 


138  Port- Royal  Education. 

write  freely  for  and  against  Aristotle's  philosophy  in  France, 
Flanders,  England,  Germany,  and  Holland. 

The  conferences  at  Paris  are  divided,  as  well  as  the  books,  and 
no  one  offends  by  opposing  him.  The  most  celebrated  professors 
no  longer  submit  to  the  servitude  of  blindly  accepting  all  that 
they  find  in  his  books,  and  some  of  his  opinions  even  are  generally 
abandoned.  For  what  physician  would  now  maintain  that  the 
nerves  spring  from  the  heart,  as  Aristotle  thought,  since  anatomy 
clearly  shows  that  they  originate  in  the  brain]  .  .  .  And  what 
philosopher  persists  in  saying  that  the  velocity  of  falling  bodies 
increases  in  the  same  ratio  as  their  weight,  since  there  is  no 
one  now  who  cannot  refute  this  opinion  of  Aristotle  by  letting 
fall  from  a  height  two  things  of  very  unequal  weight  in  which, 
nevertheless,  a  very  small  inequality  of  velocity  will  be  perceived] 

Violent  states  are  not  usually  lasting,  and  all  extremes  are 
violent.  To  condemn  Aristotle  generally,  as  was  formerly  done, 
is  too  severe ;  and  it  is  a  great  constraint  to  be  obliged  to  approve 
him  in  everything,  and  to  take  him  as  the  standard  of  the  truth 
of  philosophical  opinions,  as  it  seems  men  wished  to  do  after- 
wards. 

The  world  cannot  long  submit  to  this  constraint,  and  is  in- 
sensibly regaining  possession  of  natural  and  reasonable  liberty, 
which  consists  in  approving  what  we  think  true  and  rejecting 
what  we  think  false.1 

For  it  is  not  strange  that  reason  should  be  subjected  to 
authority  in  those  sciences  which,  treating  of  things  that  are 
above  the  reason,  must  follow  some  other  guidance,  which  cannot 
be  other  than  divine  authority ;  but  it  seems  to  be  very  just  that 
in  human  sciences,  which  profess  to  be  founded  only  upon  reason, 
it  should  not  be  subjected  to  authority  against  reason.2 

1  "In  every  nation,"  Luis  Vives  had  already  written  in  the  early  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century,   "great  and  free  spirits,  impatient  of  servitude, 
arise  ;   they  courageously  shake  off  the  yoke  of  the  most  dull  and  hard 
servitude,  and  call  their  fellow-citizens  to  liberty." 

2  Pascal  has  eloquently  claimed  the  rights  of  reason  in  scientific  matters. 
See  the  preface  to  his  Traitt  du  Tide. 


Nicole :    Of  Bad  Reasoning.  139 


Of  bad  reasoning  employed  in  civil  life  and  in 
ordinary  discourse. 

....  In  considering  generally  the  causes  of  our  errors,  it 
appears  that  they  may  be  referred  chiefly  to  two ;  the  one 
internal,  namely,  the  uncertainty  of  the  will,  which  troubles  and 
disorders  the  judgment ;  the  other  external,  which  lies  in  the 
objects  on  which  we  form  a  judgment,  and  which  deceive  our 
minds  by  a  false  appearance.  Now,  although  these  causes  are 
almost  always  conjoined,  there  are,  nevertheless,  certain  errors  in 
which  one  is  more  apparent  than  the  other,  and  therefore  we  treat 
of  them  separately. 

Of  the  sophisms  of  self-love,  inter 'est,  and  passion. 

1.  If  we  carefully  examine  that  which  usually  attaches  men  to 
one  opinion  rather  than  to  another,  it  will  be  found  that  it  is  not 
the  penetrating  power  of  the  truth  and  the  force  of  reasons,  but 
some  bond  of  self-love,  interest,  or  passion.  This  is  the  weight 
which  inclines  the  balance  and  which  decides  the  majority  of  our 
doubts ;  it  is  this  which  gives  the  greatest  impulse  to  our  judg- 
ments, and  attaches  us  to  them  the  most  firmly.  We  judge  of 
things,  not  by  what  they  are  in  themselves,  but  by  what  they  are 
with  respect  to  us,  and  truth  and  utility  are,  in  our  opinion,  one 
and  the  same  thing. 

No  other  proofs  are  needed  than  those  which  we  see  every  day, 
that  things  held  everywhere  else  as  doubtful,  or  even  false,  are 
held  to  be  very  true  by  all  those  of  some  one  nation,  profession, 
or  institution.  For  it  not  being  possible  that  what  is  true  in 
Spain  should  be  false  in  France,1  nor  that  the  minds  of  all 
Spaniards  should  be  formed  so  differently  from  those  of  French- 
men, as  that,  judging  things  only  by  the  rules  of  the  reason, 
what  appears  generally  true  to  the  former  should  appear  generally 
false  to  the  latter,  it  is  plain  that  this  diversity  of  judgment  can 
proceed  from  no  other  cause  than  that  it  pleases  some  to  hold  as 

1  "Truth  on  this  side  the  Pyrenees,  error  on  the  other,"  said  Pascal 
ironically  in  liis  Peiisees. 


140  Port- Royal  Education. 

true  what  is  advantageous  to  themselves,  and  that  the  others,  not 
having  any  interest  in  it,  judge  of  it  in  another  manner. 

Nevertheless,  what  is  less  reasonable  than  to  take  our  interest 
as  the  motive  for  believing  a  thing1?  All  that  it  can  do  at  most 
is  to  induce  us  to  examine  more  attentively  the  reasons  that  may 
lead  us  to  discover  the  truth  of  that  which  we  wish  to  be  true ; 
but  it  is  only  this  truth  which  must  be  found  in  the  thing,  even 
independently  of  our  wish,  which  ought  to  persuade  us.  I  belong 
to  such  a  country,  therefore  I  must  believe  that  such  a  saint 
preached  the  Gospel  there.  I  belong  to  a  given  order,  therefore 
I  believe  that  a  given  privilege  is  right.  These  are  no  reasons. 
Whatever  country  you  may  belong  to  you  ought  to  believe  only 
what  is  true,  and  what  you  would  be  inclined  to  believe  if  you 
were  of  another  country,  another  order,  or  another  profession. 

2.  But  this  illusion  is  still  more  apparent  when  some  change 
takes  place  in  the  passions;  for  although  all  things  have  remained 
in  their  places,  it  seems,  nevertheless,  to  those  who  are  stirred  by 
some  new  passion  that  the  change  which  has  only  taken  place  in 
their  hearts  has  transformed  all  external  things  which  had  any 
connection  with  them.  How  often  do  we  see  persons  who  cannot 
recognize  any  good  quality,  either  natural  or  acquired,  in  those 
against  whom  they  have  conceived  an  aversion,  or  who  have 
been  opposed  in  some  way  to  their  opinions,  their  wishes,  or 
their  interests !  That  suffices  to  make  them  become  at  once,  in 
their  eyes,  rash,  proud,  and  ignorant,  without  faith,  without 
honour,  and  without  conscience.  Their  affections  and  desires 
are  not  more  just  nor  moderate  than  their  hatred.  If  they  love 
anyone,  he  is  free  from  all  defects ;  everything  he  wishes  is  just 
and  easy,  all  that  he  does  not  desire  is  unjust  and  impossible, 
without  their  being  able  to  allege  any  other  reason  for  all  these 
judgments  than  the  passion  itself  that  possesses  them;  so  that,' 
although  they  do  not  make  this  formal  reasoning  in  their  mind, 
I  love  him,  therefore  he  is  the  most  clever  man  in  the  world; 
I  hate  him,  therefore  he  is  worthless,  they  do  so,  in  a  certain 
way,  in  their  hearts;  and  for  this  reason  we  may  call  this  kind 
of  aberration  sophisms  and  illusions  of  the  heart,  which  consist 
in  transporting  our  passions  into  the  objects  of  our  passions,  and 
in  judging  that  they  are  what  we  wish  or  desire  they  should  be ; 


Nicole :    Of  Bad  Reasoning.  \  4 1 

which  is,  doubtless,  very  unreasonable,  since  our  wishes  change 
nothing  in  the  existence  of  what  is  outside  ourselves,  and  that 
it  is  God  alone  whose  will  is  so  efficacious  that  things  are  what 
He  wills  them  to  be. 

3.  We  may  refer  to  the  same  illusion  of  self-love  that  of  those 
who  decide  everything  by  a  very  general  and  convenient  principle, 
which  is,  that  they  are  right,  that  they  know  the  truth;  whence 
it  is  not  difficult  for  them  to  conclude  that  those  who  are  not  of 
their  opinion  are  wrong ;  in  fact,  the  conclusion  is  necessary. 

The  fault  in  these  persons  springs  only  from  this,  that  the 
favourable  opinion  they  have  of  their  own  sagacity  makes  them 
consider  all  their  thoughts  as  so  clear  and  evident,  that  they 
imagine  it  to  be  sufficient  to  state  them  in  order  to  oblige  all 
the  world  to  assent  to  them.  They  therefore  give  themselves 
little  trouble  to  advance  proofs;  they  scarcely  listen  to  others' 
reasons;  they  wish  to  carry  everything  by  their  authority, 
because  they  never  distinguish  their  authority  from  reason. 
All  those  who  are  not  of  their  opinion  they  call  rash,  without 
considering  that,  if  others  are  not  of  their  opinion,  neither  are 
they  of  the  opinion  of  others,  and  that  it  is  not  just  to  suppose, 
without  proof,  that  we  are  right,  when  it  is  a  question  of  con- 
vincing others  who  are  of  another  opinion  than  ourselves  simply 
because  they  are  persuaded  that  we  are  not  right. 

4.  There  are  others,  also,  who  have  no  other  ground  for  reject- 
ing certain  opinions  than  this  humorous  reasoning  :  If  that  were 
so,  I  should  not  be  a  clever  man ;  now  I  am  a  clever  man,  there- 
fore it  is  not  so.     This  is  the  principal  reason  which  has  caused 
certain  very  useful  remedies  and  some  very  decisive  experiments 
to  be  so  long  rejected,  because  those  who  had  not  yet  known  them 
thought  that  they  must  have  been  in  error  up  till  that  time. 
"  What ! "  said  they,  "if  the  blood  circulates  in  the  body,1  if  the 
food  is  not  carried  to  the  liver  by  the  mesaraic  veins,  if   the 
pulmonary  vein   carries   the   blood   to   the   heart,   if    the   blood 
rises   by  the  descending  vena  cava;    if   nature  does  not   abhor 
a  vacuum;     if    the  air   has   weight   and   a   downward   motion, 


1  The  discovery  of   the  circulation  of   the  blood  is  due  to  Harvey,  an 
English  physician,  in  1628. 


142  Port- Royal  Education. 

I  have  been  ignorant  of  important  things  in  anatomy  and 
physics !  All  this  then  cannot  be."  But,  in  order  to  cure 
them  of  this  fancy,  it  is  only  necessary  to  show  them  that  it  is 
a  very  small  disadvantage  for  a  man  to  be  mistaken,  and  that 
they  may  be  very  clever  in  other  things  although  they  have  not 
been  so  in  those  which  have  been  newly  discovered. 

5.  Nothing  is  more  usual  than  to  see  people  blame  one  another, 
and  call  each  other  obstinate,  passionate,  and  captious  when  they 
are  of  different  opinions.  There  are  very  few  litigants  who  do 
not  accuse  each  other  of  lengthening  the  suit  and  concealing  the 
truth  by  subtle  speeches ;  and  thus  those  who  are  right  and  those 
who  are  wrong  use  very  nearly  the  same  language,  make  the 
same  complaints,  and  attribute  to  each  other  the  same  faults. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  mischievous  things  in  men's  lives,  and 
one  which  throws  truth  and  error,  justice  and  injustice,  into 
such  obscurity  that  ordinary  people  are  incapable  of  distinguish- 
ing them;  and  thus  it  happens  that  some  attach  themselves,  by 
chance  and  without  knowledge,  to  one  of  these  parties,  and  others 
condemn  both  as  being  equally  wrong. 

All  this  oddness  springs  from  the  same  malady  which  makes 
each  man  assume  as  a  principle  that  he  is  right ;  for  from  that 
it  is  not  difficult  to  conclude  that  all  who  oppose  us  are  obstinate, 
since  obstinacy  is  not  giving  way  to  reason. 

But,  although  it  be  true  that  these  reproaches  of  passion,  blind- 
ness, and  captiousness,  which  are  very  unjust  on  the  part  of  those 
who  are  mistaken,  are  just  and  legitimate  on  the  part  of  those  who 
are  not  mistaken,  nevertheless,  because  they  suppose  that  truth  is 
on  the  side  of  him  who  makes  them,  wise  and  judicious  persons, 
who  treat  on  any  disputed  matter,  ought  to  avoid  using  them 
before  thoroughly  establishing  the  truth  and  justice  of  the  cause 
which  they  uphold.  They  will  never  then  accuse  their  opponents 
of  obstinacy,  rashness,  and  want  of  common  sense  before  they  have 
clearly  proved  it.  They  will  not  say,  if  they  have  not  previously 
shown  it,  that  they  fall  into  gross  absurdities  and  extravagances, 
for  the  others  will  say  as  much  on  their  side,  which  advances 
nothing  .  .  .  and  they  will  be  satisfied  with  defending  the  truth 
by  arms  which  are  appropriate  to  it  and  which  falsehood  cannot 
borrow,  namely,  by  plain  and  solid  reasons.  .  .  . 


Nicole:    Of  Bad  Reasoning.  143 


Of  False  Reasonings  which  Spring  from  the 
Objects  Themselves. 

...  It  is  a  false  and  impious  opinion  that  truth  is  so  like  false- 
hood and  virtue  so  like  vice  that  it  is  impossible  to  discriminate 
between  them ;  but  it  is  true  that  in  the  majority  of  things  there 
is  a  mixture  of  error  and  truth,  of  vice  and  virtue,  of  perfection 
and  imperfection,  and  that  this  medley  is  one  of  the  most  ordinary 
sources  of  the  false  judgments  of  men. 

The  reason  of  this  is  that  men  seldom  consider  things  in  detail ; 
they  judge  only  by  their  strongest  impression,  and  appreciate 
only  what  strikes  them  most;  thus,  when  they  perceive  many 
truths  in  a  discourse,  they  do  not  notice  the  errors  that  are 
mingled  with  them;  and,  on  the  contrary,  if  there  are  truths 
mixed  with  many  errors,  they  pay  attention  only  to  the  errors; 
the  strong  carrying  off  the  weak,  and  the  clearer  impression 
effacing  the  more  obscure. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  a  manifest  injustice  to  judge  in  this  manner ; 
there  cannot  be  a  just  reason  for  rejecting  reason,  and  truth  is 
none  the  less  truth  through  being  mixed  with  error.  .  .  . 

Therefore  justice  and  reason  requires  that  in  all  things  that  are 
thus  made  up  of  good  and  bad  a  discrimination  should  be  made, 
and  it  is  especially  in  this  judicious  separation  that  accuracy  of 
mind  appears.  .  .  . 

And  reason  obliges  us  to  this  when  we  can  make  this  dis- 
tinction; but  since  we  have  not  always  the  time  to  examine  in 
detail  how  much  good  and  bad  there  is  in  each  thing,  it  is  fitting, 
in  these  circumstances,  to  give  them  the  name  they  deserve 
according  to  their  most  considerable  part ;  thus  we  should  call 
a  man  a  good  philosopher  when  he  reasons  well  generally,  and  a 
book  good  when  it  has  markedly  more  good  than  bad  in  it. 

And  it  is  in  this  again  that  men  are  often  mistaken,  for  they 
often  only  appreciate  or  blame  things  from  their  least  important 
parts,  their  small  understanding  making  them  unable  to  grasp  the 
most  important  part  when  it  is  not  the  most  striking. 

Thus,  although  those  persons  who  are  judges  of  painting  value 
drawing  very  much  more  than  colouring  or  lightness  of  touch, 
nevertheless,  the  ignorant  are  more  impressed  by  a  picture  whose 


144  Port- Royal  Education. 

colours  are  bright  and  striking  than  by  another  more  sombre, 
of  which  the  drawing  might  be  admirable. 

It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  false  judgments  are  not  so 
usual  in  the  arts,  because  those  who  know  nothing  of  them  more 
readily  defer  to  the  opinion  of  those  who  are  skilled  in  them ;  but 
they  are  very  frequent  in  things  which  are  in  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  people,  and  of  which  the  world  takes  the  liberty  of  judging, 
as,  for  example,  eloquence. 

A  preacher,  for  instance,  is  called  eloquent  when  his  periods  are 
just,  and  he  does  not  make  use  of  inappropriate  words ;  and, 
on  this  ground,  Yaugelas  says  in  one  passage  that  an  inappropriate 
word  does  more  harm  to  a  preacher  or  an  advocate  than  a  bad 
reason.  We  must  believe  that  it  is  an  actual  truth  that  he  states 
and  not  an  opinion  that  he  sanctions.  It  is  true  that  persons  are 
found  who  judge  in  this  manner,  but  it  is  also  true  that  nothing 
is  less  reasonable  than  these  judgments;  for  purity  of  language 
and  the  number  of  rhetorical  figures  are,  at  most,  to  eloquence 
what  the  colouring  is  to  the  picture,  that  is  to  say,  its  least 
important  and  most  materialistic  part;  but  the  principal  part 
consists  in  strongly  conceiving  and  expressing  the  subjects,  so  that 
a  bright  and  lively  image  is  impressed  on  the  minds  of  the 
hearers,1  which  presents  not  only  the  things  themselves  but  also 
the  emotions  with  which  they  are  conceived;  and  this  may  be  met 

1  Fenelon,  who  reduces  all  eloquence  to  three  points,  namely,  to  prove,  to 
painty  and  to  move,  thus  develops  the  second  :  "To  paint  is  not  only 
to  describe  things,  but  to  represent  their  surroundings  in  such  a  lively 
and  impressive  manner  that  the  hearer  may  almost  imagine  he  sees  them. 
For  example,  a  cold  historian  relating  the  death  of  Dido  would  be  satisfied 
with  saying  she  was  so  overcome  with  grief  after  the  departure  of  ^Eneas  that 
she  could  not  bear  her  life  ;  she  \vent  up  to  the  top  of  her  palace,  threw  her- 
self on  a  funeral  pyre,  and  killed  herself.  In  listening  to  these  words 
you  learn  the  fact,  but  you  do  not  see  it.  Listen  to  Virgil,  he  will  set 
it  before  your  eyes.  Is  it  not  true  that  when  he  brings  together  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  this  despair,  when  he  shows  you  Dido  furious,  with  a  face  in 
which  death  is  already  painted,  when  he  makes  her  speak  at  the  sight 
of  that  portrait  and  sword,  your  imagination  transports  you  to  Carthage  ; 
you  think  you  see  the  Trojan  fleet  retiring  from  the  coast,  and  the  queen 
whom  nothing  is  able  to  console  ;  you  have  all  the  feelings  that  the  actual 
spectators  would  have  had.  You  no  longer  listen  to  Virgil ;  you  are  too 
attentive  to  the  last  words  of  the  unhappy  Dido  to  think  of  him.  The  poet 
disappears,  and  we  see  nothing  but  what  he  shows,  and  only  hear  those 
whom  he  makes  speak.  Here  is  the  power  of  imitation  and  painting."  (2e 
Dialogue  sur  V eloquence.) 


Nicole :    Of  Bad  Reasoning.  145 

with  in  persons  who  are  not  very  precise  in  language  nor  exact  in 
harmony,  and  which  is  seldom  met  with  in  those  who  give  too 
much  attention  to  words  and  embellishments,  because  this  turns 
them  from  the  things  and  weakens  the  vigour  of  their  thoughts, 
as  painters  remark  that  those  who  excel  in  colouring  do  not 
usually  excel  in  drawing,  the  mind  being  incapable  of  this 
divided  attention,  the  one  part  injuring  the  other. 

It  may  be  said  generally  that  in  the  world  the  majority  of 
things  are  judged  only  by  the  outside,  because  there  is  scarcely 
anybody  who  examines  the  interior  and  foundation  of  them ; 
everything  is  judged  by  the  label,  and  woe  to  those  who  have  not 
a  favourable  one !  He  is  clever,  intelligent,  sound,  what  you 
will ;  but  he  does  not  speak  fluently  and  cannot  turn  a  compli- 
ment neatly ;  let  him  make  up  his  mind  to  be  held  in  small 
esteem  all  his  life  by  ordinary  people,  and  to  see  a  multitude 
of  little  minds  preferred  to  himself.  Not  to  have  the  reputation 
we  deserve  is  not  a  very  great  evil,  but  to  follow  these  erroneous 
judgments,  and  only  to  look  at  things  from  the  outside  is  so,  and 
is  what  we  should  endeavour  to  avoid. 

2.  Among  the  things  which  entangle  us  in  error  by  a  false 
brilliancy,  which  prevents  our  recognizing  it,  we  may  rightly  put 
a  certain  sonorous  and  copious  eloquence  ;  for  it  is  strange  how  a 
false  reasoning  glides  gently  from  a  period  that  satisfies  the  ear, 
or  from  a  figure  that  surprises  us,  and  which  it  amuses  us  to 
consider. 

Not  only  do  these  ornaments  conceal  from  us  the  falsehoods 
that  are  mixed  up  in  the  discourse,  but  they  insensibly  form  part 
of  them,  because  they  are  often  necessary  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
period  or  the  figure.  Thus,  when  we  hear  an  orator  begin  a  long 
climax  or  an  antithesis  with  several  clauses,  we  have  a  motive  for 
being  on  our  guard,  since  it  seldom  happens  that  he  extricates 
himself  without  giving  a  wrench  to  the  truth  in  order  to  fit  it  to 
the  figure.1  He  usually  arranges  it  as  a  man  would  the  stones 
of  a  building  or  the  metal  of  a  statue ;  he  cuts  it,  spreads  it  out, 
shortens  it,  and  disguises  it  at  need,  in  order  to  place  it  in 
that  useless  work  of  words  that  he  wishes  to  form. 

1  Pascal  compares  these  forced  antitheses  to  "sham  windows  for 
symmetry."  (Pensees.) 

L 


146  Port-Royal  Education. 

How  often  has  the  desire  to  make  a  point  produced  unsound 
thoughts !  How  often  has  rime  invited  men  to  lie  !  How  often 
has  the  affectation  of  using  only  Ciceronian  words  and  what 
is  called  pure  Latinity  made  certain  Italian  authors  write  non- 
sense !  Who  would  not  laugh  to  hear  Bembo 1  say  that  a  pope 
had  been  elected  by  the  favour  of  the  immortal  gods  !  There  are 
indeed  poets  who  imagine  that  it  is  the  essence  of  poetry  to 
introduce  the  pagan  divinities ;  and  a  German  poet,  as  good  a 
versifier  as  he  is  an  injudicious  writer,  having  been  properly 
censured  by  Francis  Picus  Mirandola  for  having  introduced  all  the 
divinities  of  paganism  into  a  poem  in  which  he  describes  the 
wars  of  Christians  against  Christians,  and  for  having  mixed 
up  Apollo,  Diana,  and  Mercury  with  the  pope,  the  electors,  and 
the  emperor,  boldly  maintained  that  without  that  he  would 
not  have  been  a  poet,  employing  this  strange  reason,  in  order 
to  prove  it,  that  the  verses  of  Hesiod,  Homer,  and  Yirgil  are 
filled  with  the  names  and  fables  of  these  gods,  whence  he 
concludes  that  it  is  allowable  for  him  to  do  the  same. 

This  unsound  reasoning  is  often  unperceived  by  those  who  use 
it,  and  deceives  them  first ;  they  are  stunned  by  the  sound  of  their 
own  words,  dazzled  by  the  brilliancy  of  their  figures,  and  the 
grandeur  of  certain  words  draws  them  on,  without  their  perceiving 
it,  to  thoughts  of  little  solidity,  which  they  would  no  doubt  regret 
if  they  reflected  on  them  at  all. 

It  is  probable,  for  example,  that  it  was  the  word  vestal  which 
pleased  an  author  of  the  present  time  and  led  him  to  say  to  a 
lady,  to  prevent  her  being  ashamed  of  knowing  Latin,  that  she 
need  not  blush  to  speak  a  language  that  the  Yestals  spoke ;  for  if 
he  had  considered  this  idea,  he  would  have  seen  that  he  might 
have  said  to  the  lady,  with  as  much  reason,  that  she  ought  to 
blush  to  speak  a  language  that  the  courtezans  of  Rome  formerly 
spoke,  who  were  much  more  numerous  than  the  Yestals;2  or  that 
she  ought  to  blush  to  speak  any  other  language  than  that  of  her 


1  Pierre  Bembo  (1470-1547),  secretary  to  Leo  X.,  was  so  enamoured  with 
Cicero's  style  as  to  imitate  him  even  in  his  pagan  expressions  ;  he  was  elected 
cardinal,  and  took  orders  in  1539. 

2  The  Vestals  were  virgins  appointed  to  keep  up  the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar 
of  the  goddess  Yesta  ;  there  were  only  six. 


Nicole :    Of  Bad  Reasoning.  147 

own  country,  since  the  ancient  Vestals  spoke  only  their  native 
language.  All  these  arguments,  which  are  worth  nothing,  are  as 
good  as  that  of  this  author,  and  the  truth  is  that  the  Vestals  can 
serve  neither  to  justify  nor  condemn  girls  who  learn  Latin.1 

False  reasonings  of  this  sort,  which  are  constantly  met  with  in 
the  writings  of  those  who  most  affect  eloquence,  show  how  the 
majority  of  persons  who  speak  or  write  would  need  to  be  per- 
suaded of  this  excellent  rule  that  nothing  is  beautiful  but  ivhat  is 
true?  which  would  remove  a  vast  number  of  worthless  ornaments 
and  false  thoughts  from  discourse.  Certainly  this  precision  renders 
the  style  drier  and  less  sonorous,  but  it  also  renders  it  more  lively, 
serious,  clear,  and  worthy  of  a  cultivated  man;  its  impression  is 
stronger  and  more  durable,  whereas  that  which  simply  springs 
from  these  nicely-balanced  periods  is  so  superficial,  that  it  vanishes 
almost  as  soon  as  it  is  heard.8 

3.  It  is  a  very  common  failing  among  men  to  judge  rashly  of 
the  actions  and  intentions  of  others,  but  they  seldom  fall  into  it 
except  through  bad  reasoning,  by  which,  through  not  recognizing 
with  sufficient  clearness  all  the  causes  that  may  produce  a  certain 
effect,  they  attribute  this  effect  to  one  cause  alone,  when  it  may 
have  been  produced  by  several  others ;  or  again,  they  suppose  that 
a  cause  which,  by  accident,  has  had  a  certain  effect  on  one  occasion, 
when  it  was  united  with  several  other  circumstances,  ought  to 
have  it  under  all  conditions. 

1  Malebranche  quizzes  good-naturedly  the  pretended  reasons  alleged  by 
Tertullian  to  justify  himself  for  wearing  the  philosopher's  mantle  instead  of 
the  ordinary  robe.     This  mantle  was  formerly  in  use  at  Carthage,  but  "  is  it 
allowable  at  the  present  time  to  wear  the  cap  and  ruff  because  our  fathers 
wore  them  ? "     How  could  the  phases  of  the  moon,  the  variations  of  the 
seasons,  the  renewing  of  the  serpent's  skin,  &c.,  serve  to  justify  his  change  ? 
(Recherche  de  la  vtrite',  liv.  ii. ) 

2  Boileau  will  make  it  the  rule  of  literature  :  Rien  n'est  beau  que  le  mai  ; 
le  vrai  seul  est  aimable.  (Epitre  ix.) 

"  Nothing  is  beautiful  but  the  true  ;  the  true  alone  is  pleasing." 

3  Fenelon  very  happily  puts  this  criticism  in  the  mouth  of  one  of  his 
characters,  the  admirer  of  the  sermon  for  Ash-Wednesday.     He  cannot  give 
an  account  of  it.     "The  thoughts  are  so  delicate,  and  depend  so  much  on 
the  tone  and  shades  of  expression,  that  after  having  charmed  for  the  moment 
they  are  not  easily  remembered  afterwards,  and  even  if  they  should  be,  say 
them  in  other  terms  and  it  is  no  longer  the  same  thing,  they  lose  their  grace 
and  force.     They  are  very  fragile  beauties  then,  Sir ;  on  endeavouriug  to 
touch  them  they  disappear.     I  should  much  prefer  a  discourse  with  more 
body  and  less  spirit."  (ler  Dialogue  sur  I' Eloquence.) 


148  Port- Royal  Education. 

A  man  of  letters  holds  the  same  opinion  as  a  heretic  on  a 
matter  of  criticism,  independent  of  religious  controversies ;  an 
ill-natured  opponent  will  conclude  from  this  that  he  has  some 
leaning  towards  the  heretics ;  but  he  will  conclude  rashly  and 
maliciously,  since  it  is  perhaps  reason  and  truth  which  lead  him  to 
this  opinion. 

If  a  writer  speak  with  some  force  against  an  opinion  that  he 
thinks  dangerous,  he  may  be  accused  upon  that  of  hatred  and 
animosity  against  the  authors  who  have  advanced  it,  but  it  would 
be  rashly  and  unjustly,  for  this  force  might  spring  from  zeal  for 
truth  quite  as  well  as  from  hatred  to  persons. 

A  man  is  the  friend  of  a  bad  man,  hence  it  is  concluded  he 
is  allied  with  him  by  interest,  and  is  a  partaker  in  his  crimes. 
This  does  not  follow ;  perhaps  he  is  ignorant  of  them,  and  perhaps 
he  has  had  no  share  in  them. 

A  man  fails  to  pay  a  compliment  to  those  to  whom  it  is  due ;  he 
is  called  proud  and  insolent,  but  perhaps  it  is  only  inadvertence  or 
simply  f orgetfulness. 

All  these  exterior  things  are  only  equivocal  signs,  that  is  to 
say,  signs  which  may  signify  several  things,  and  it  is  judging 
rashly  to  limit  this  sign  to  a  particular  thing  without  having  any 
special  reason  for  doing  so.  Silence  is  sometimes  a  sign  of 
modesty  and  judgment,  and  sometimes  of  stupidity.  Slowness 
sometimes  indicates  prudence  and  sometimes  dulness  of  mind. 
Change  is  sometimes  a  sign  of  inconstancy  and  sometimes  of 
sincerity ;  thus  it  is  bad  reasoning  to  conclude  that  a  man  is 
inconstant  simply  because  he  has  changed  his  opinion,  for  he  may 
have  had  good  reason  to  change  it.  ... 

It  is  a  weakness  and  an  injustice,  which  is  often  condemned  but 
seldom  avoided,  to  judge  advice  by  the  results,  and  to  blame  those 
who  have  taken  a  prudent  resolution  according  to  the  circum- 
stances that  they  could  then  see,  for  all  the  bad  results  that  have 
followed,1  either  through  a  simple  casualty  or  through  the  malice 

1  Compared  with  this  lagging  prose  how  brilliant  and  striking  is  the 
eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  crushing  that  sophism  in  the  mouth  of  uEschines  ! 
Accused  of  being  the  author  of  the  disaster  at  Chseronea,  he  haughtily 
accepts  the  responsibility :  ' '  Athenians,  I  am  going  to  say  a  strange  thing. 
,  .  .  If  all  of  us  had  clearly  seen  the  future,  if  you,  ^schines,  had 


Nicole:    Of  Bad  Reasoning.  149 

of  those  who  have  thwarted  it,  or  through  some  other  circum- 
stances which  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  foresee. 

Not  only  do  men  like  to  be  fortunate  as  much  as  to  be  wise, 
but  they  make  no  distinction  between  the  fortunate  and  the  wise 
or  between  the  unfortunate  and  the  culpable.  This  distinction 
appears  to  them  too  subtle.  They  are  ingenious  in  finding  out 
the  faults  that  they  imagine  have  led  to  the  ill-success,  and  as  the 
astrologers,  when  they  know  a  certain  event,  never  fail  to  discover 
the  aspect  of  the  stars  which  produced  it,  they  also  never  fail  to 
find,  after  disgraces  and  misfortunes,  that  those  who  have  fallen 
into  them  deserved  them  by  some  imprudence.  He  has  not 
succeeded,  therefore  he  is  wrong.  Thus  men  of  the  world  reason, 
and  have  always  reasoned,  because  there  has  always  been  little 
equity  in  men's  judgments,  and  because,  not  knowing  the  real 
causes  of  things,  they  substitute  others  according  to  the  event, 
praising  those  who  succeed  and  blaming  those  who  do  not. 

If  there  are  pardonable  errors,  they  are  certainly  those  that  are 
committed  through  excessive  deference  to  the  opinions  of  those 
who  are  considered  good  men.  But  there  is  an  illusion  much 
more  absurd  in  itself,  but  which  is,  nevertheless,  very  common, 
namely,  thinking  that  a  man  speaks  the  truth  because  he  is  a  man 
of  birth,  wealth,  or  of  high  dignity. 

Persons  do  not  formally  reason  in  this  manner :  he  has  a. 
hundred  thousand  livres  a  year,  therefore  he  is  right;  he  is  of 
high  birth,  hence  we  ought  to  believe  what  he  advances  to  be 
true ;  he  is  a  poor  man,  therefore  he  is  wrong.  Nevertheless, 
something  of  the  kind  passes  through  the  minds  of  the  majority 
of  men,  and  unconsciously  carries  away  their  judgment. 

If  the  same  thing  be  suggested  by  a  person  of  quality  and 
by  a  man  of  no  position,  it  will  often  be  approved  in  the  mouth 
of  the  person  of  quality,  while  people  will  not  deign  to  listen 
to  it  from  a  man  of  the  lower  classes.  Scripture  intended  to 

announced  it  to  us  with  your  voice  of  thunder,  you  who  did  not  even  open 
your  mouth,  even  then  Athens  ought  not  to  have  renounced  her  principles, 
if  she  had  at  heart  her  dignity,  the  glory  of  her  ancestors,  and  the  judgment 
of  posterity.  .  .  .  No,  Athenians,  you  have  not  erred  in  throwing  yourselves 
into  the  midst  of  dangers  for  the  liberty  and  the  safety  of  all,  I  swear  it  by 
your  ancestors  who  braved  the  dangers  of  Marathon,  by  those  who  fought  at 
Platsea,  at  Salamis,  at  Artemisium,"  &c. 


150  Port-Royal  Education. 

teach  us  this  disposition  of  man,  representing  it  exactly  in  the 
book  of  Ecclesiasticus :  "  When  a  rich  man  speaketh,  every  man 
holdeth  his  tongue,  and  look,  what  he  saith,  they  extol  it  to  the 
clouds;  but  if  the  poor  man  speak,  they  say,  What  fellow  is 
this?" 

It  is  certain  that  complaisance  and  flattery  have  a  large  share 
in  the  approbation  that  men  give  to  the  words  and  actions  of 
persons  of  good  birth,  and  these  often  attract  it  by  a  certain 
outward  grace,  and  a  noble,  free,  and  natural  manner,  which  is 
sometimes  so  peculiar  to  them  that  it  is  almost  inimitable  by 
those  of  low  birth;  but  it  is  also  certain  that  many  approve 
all  that  the  great  do  and  say  from  a  poverty  of  spirit  which 
bends  under  the  weight  of  grandeur,  and  has  not  a  sufficiently 
strong  sight  to  support  its  brilliancy,  and  that  this  external  pomp 
which  surrounds  them  always  imposes  a  little,  and  makes  some 
impression  on  the  strongest  minds. 

The  cause  of  this  deception  is  in  the  corruption  of  the  human 
heart,  which,  having  an  ardent  desire  for  honours  and  pleasures, 
necessarily  conceives  a  great  love  for  riches  and  the  other  qualities 
by  means  of  which  these  honours  and  pleasures  are  obtained. 
Now,  the  love  that  we  have  for  all  these  things  that  the  world 
values  causes  us  to  think  those  fortunate  who  possess  them, 
and,  judging  them  fortunate,  we  place  them  above  ourselves, 
and  look  upon  them  as  exalted  and  eminent  persons.  This 
habit  of  looking  upon  them  with  esteem  passes  insensibly  from 
their  fortune  to  their  mind.  Men  do  not  usually  do  things  by 
halves.  They  attribute  to  them,  then,  a  mind  as  exalted  as 
their  rank,  and  yield  to  their  opinions,  and  this  is  the  reason 
of  the  credit  they  usually  have  in  the  affairs  of  which  they  treat. 

But  this  illusion  is  still  stronger  in  the  great  themselves,  who 
have  not  been  careful  to  correct  the  impression  that  their  fortune 
naturally  makes  on  their  own  minds,  than  it  is  in  their  inferiors. 
There  are  few  of  them  who  do  not  make  a  reason  of  their  rank 
and  wealth,  and  do  not  think  that  their  opinions  ought  to  prevail 
over  the  opinions  of  those  who  are  below  them.  They  cannot 
bear  that  people  upon  whom  they  look  down  should  lay  claim 
to  as  much  judgment  and  reason  as  themselves,  and  this  makes 
them  impatient  of  the  least  contradiction. 


Nicole :    Of  Bad  Reasoning.  1 5 1 

All  this  springs  from  the  same  source,  that  is  to  say,  from  the 
false  ideas  they  have  of  their  grandeur,  nobility,  and  wealth. 
Instead  of  considering  these  as  things  entirely  extraneous  to  their 
existence,  which  do  not  prevent  them  being  on  a  perfect  equality 
with  the  rest  of  mankind  as  to  soul  and  body,  nor  having  the 
judgment  as  feeble  and  as  capable  of  being  deceived  as  that  of 
everybody  else,  they  incorporate,  in  a  certain  way,  in  their  very 
essence  all  these  qualities  of  great,  noble,  rich,  master,  lord,  and 
prince;  they  magnify  their  idea  of  them,  and  never  think  of 
themselves  without  all  their  titles,  their  equipage,  and  their  train.1 

They  are  accustomed  to  look  upon  themselves  from  their  child- 
hood as  a  separate  species  from  other  men ;  they  are  never  mixed 
up  in  imagination  with  the  crowd  of  mankind;  they  are  always 
counts  or  dukes  in  their  own  eyes,  and  never  simply  men ;  thus 
they  cut  out  for  themselves  a  mind  and  a  judgment  in  proportion 
to  their  fortune,  and  think  themselves  placed  as  far  above  others 
in  mind  as  they  are  in  rank  and  wealth. 

The  folly  of  the  human  mind  is  such  that  there  is  nothing  that 
does  not  help  it  to  aggrandize  its  idea  of  itself.  A  fine  house, 
a  splendid  coat,  a  long  beard,  make  a  man  think  himself  more 
clever;  and  if  we  take  notice,  he  thinks  more  of  himself  on 
horseback  or  in  a  coach  than  on  foot.  It  is  easy  to  persuade 
everybody  that  nothing  is  more  ridiculous  than  these  judgments, 
but  it  is  very  difficult  to  protect  ourselves  entirely  against  the 
secret  impression  that  all  these  things  make  on  the  mind.  All 
that  we  can  do  is  to  accustom  ourselves,  as  far  as  possible,  to 
give  no  weight  to  those  qualities  which  can  in  no  way  contribute 
to  the  discovery  of  the  truth,  and  to  give  to  those  that  do 
contribute  to  it  only  as  much  as  they  do  really  contribute. 
Age,  knowledge,  study,  experience,  mind,  activity,  caution, 
accuracy,  and  labour  serve  to  discover  the  truth  of  hidden 
things,  and  therefore  these  qualities  deserve  respect;  but,  never- 
theless, they  must  be  carefully  weighed,  and  then  compared  with 


1  You  are  deceived,  Philemon,  if  you  think  you  are  more  esteemed  for 
this  brilliant  carriage,  this  great  number  of  knaves  that  follow  you,  and 
these  six  animals  that  draw  you.  Men  put  aside  all  this  outward  show 
to  penetrate  to  you,  who  are  nothing  but  a  fop.  (LA  BKUY^RE,  Caracteres, 
cli.  ii.) 


152  Port- Royal  Education. 

the  opposite  reasons,  for  we  can  decide  nothing  with  certainty 
from  each  of  these  things  hy  itself,  since  very  erroneous  opinions 
have  been  maintained  by  men  of  great  intellect  who  had  many  of 
these  Qualities.  (Logique,  part  iii.  ch.  xx.) 


V*    RULES  OF  THE  METHOD  IN  THE  SCIENCES. 

^  Analysis  consists  more  in  the  judgment  and  mental  skill  than 
in  particular  rules.  These  four,  nevertheless,  that  Descartes  lays 
down  in  his  Method,  may  be  useful  in  avoiding  error  in  the 
pursuit  of  truth  in  human  sciences,  although,  to  say  the  truth, 
they  are  general  for  all  kinds  of  methods  and  not  peculiar  to 
analysis. 

The  first  is,  never  to  accept  anything  as  true  which  we  do  not 
plainly  recognize  as  such  ;  that  is  to  say,  to  carefully  avoid  hastiness 
and  prejudice,  and  not  to  include  in  our  judgments  anything  that  is 
not  presented  so  clearly  to  the  mind  that  there  is  no  room  for  doubt. 

The  second,  to  divide  each  of  the  difficulties  that  we  are 
examining  into  as  many  parts  as  possible,  or  as  are  requisite  to 
resolve  it. 

The  third,  to  conduct  our  thoughts  in  order,  beginning  with  the 
simplest  and  most  easily  understood  objects,  in  order  to  rise  by 
degrees  to  the  knowledge  of  the  more  complex,  and  even  to  suppose 
an  order  among  those  that  do  not  naturally  precede  one  another. 

The  fourth,  to  make  throughout  such  complete  enumerations  and 
general  reviews  that  we  may  be  certain  of  having  omitted  nothing. 

It  is  true  that  there  is  much  difficulty  in  observing  these  rules ; 
but  it  is  always  useful  to  bear  them  in  mind  and  to  observe  them, 
as  far  as  possible,  when  we  wish  to  discover  the  truth  by  means  of 
the  reason  and  as  far  as  our  mind  is  capable  of  knowing  it. 

The  Method  of  the  Sciences  reduced  to  eight  principal  rules. 

TWO   RULES   TOUCHING   DEFINITIONS. 

1.  To  leave  no  term  in  the  least  obscure  or  equivocal  without 
defining  it. 

2.  To  employ  in  the  definitions  only  terms  which  are  perfectly 
known  or  already  explained. 


Nicole:    Method  in  the  Sciences.  153 


TWO   RULES   FOR   THE   AXIOMS. 

3.  To  demand  as  axioms  only  things  perfectly  evident. 

4.  To  accept  as  evident  that  which  needs  only  a  little  attention 
in  order  to  be  recognized  as  true. 

TWO   RULES   FOR   THE    DEMONSTRATIONS. 

5.  To  prove  all  propositions,  which  are  in  the  least  obscure,  by 
employing  in  proof  of  them  only  preceding  definitions,  accepted 
axioms,  or  propositions  already  demonstrated. 

6.  Never  to  abuse  what  is  equivocal  in  terms  by  failing  to 
substitute  for  them  mentally  the  definitions  which  restrict  and 
explain  them. 

TWO   RULES   FOR   THE   METHOD. 

7.  To  treat  of  things  as  far  as  possible  in  their  natural  order, 
commencing   with    the    simplest   and   most   general,    explaining 
everything  that  belongs  to  the  nature  of  the  genus  before  passing 
to  its  particular  species. 

8.  To  divide,  as  far  as  possible,  every  genus  into  all  its  species, 
every  whole  into  all  its  parts,  and  every  difficulty  into  all  its 
cases. 

I  have  added  to  these  two  rules,  as  far  as  possible,  because  it 
often  happens  that  we  cannot  observe  them  rigorously,  either 
on  account  of  the  limits  of  the  human  understanding  or  of  those 
we  have  been  obliged  to  set  to  every  science. 

This  often  causes  us  to  treat  of  a  species  when  we  are  not  able 
to  treat  of  all  that  belongs  to  its  genus  ;  as  we  treat  of  the  circle 
in  common  geometry  without  saying  anything  specially  of  the 
curved  line,  which  is  its  genus,  and  which  we  are  satisfied  with 
simply  defining. 

We  cannot  either  say  all  that  can  be  said  of  a  whole  genus, 
because  that  would  often  be  too  long  ;  but  it  is  sufficient  to  say  all 
we  wish  to  say  of  it  before  passing  to  the  species. 

But  I  think  that  a  science  can  only  be  treated  perfectly  by 
observing  these  two  last  rules  as  well  as  the  others,  and  only 
resolving  to  dispense  with  them  from  necessity  or  for  some 
special  advantage.  (Logique,  part  iv.  ch.  ii.  and  iii 


UNIVERSITY 


154  Port-Royal  Education. 


ON  TEACHING  READING  AND  WRITING ;  EXERCISES  IN 
TRANSLATION,  ELOCUTION,  AND  COMPOSITION. 

"DEAR  READER, — Some  of  my  friends  having  desired  me  to 
speak  more  at  length  on  the  subject  of  teaching  children  Latin 
than  I  haye  done  in  the  different  prefaces  to  translations  that 
I  have  given  to  the  puhlic,  in  which  I  have  been  satisfied  with 
representing  chiefly  that  the  system  now  followed  is  long,  difficult, 
and  unnatural,  and  that  I  thought  that  there  might  be  another 
shorter,  easier,  and  more  conformable  to  nature,  that  is,  to  reason, 
I  will  endeavour  to  satisfy  them  here  as  succinctly  as  possible, 
labouring  to  build  up,  after  having  laboured  in  my  other  writings 
to  destroy.  .  .  . 

"  In  the  first  place,  then,  I  say  that  it  is  a  grave  error  to  begin, 
as  is  usually  done,  to  teach  children  to  read  through  Latin  and  not 
through  French. 

"  This  road  is  so  long  and  difficult,  that  it  not  only  repels  the 
scholars  from  all  other  learning,  by  prejudicing  their  minds  from 
their  earliest  childhood  with  a  distaste  and  an  almost  invincible 
hatred  for  books  and  study,  but  it  also  makes  the  teachers 
impatient  and  peevish,  because  both  are  equally  wearied  with  the 
trouble  and  time  they  give  to  it,  which  extends  to  three  or  four 
years  \  but  the  masters  must  consider  that,  if  they  have  difficulty 
in  teaching,  the  children  have  incomparably  more  in  learning, 
which  should  be  a  motive  for  making  them  gentler  and  more 
patient  with  them  by  making  them  sympathize  with  the  weak- 
ness of  childhood.  For  they  must  not  imagine  that  what  they 
find  pleasure  in  knowing  children  can  learn  without  trouble ; 
but  they  should  rather  remember  their  own  childhood,  and  the 
difficulties  they  had  in  becoming  learned.  Thus  they  will  adapt 
themselves  to  the  weakness  of  their  scholars,  and  not  give  them 
more  trouble  than  they  can  help.  .  .  . 

"  There  will  always  be  difficulties  enough,  either  from  things  or 
from  their  minds,  or,  in  fact,  from  their  natural  inclinations  or 
aversions,  without  our  adding  others  ourselves  by  the  bad  method 
we  follow  in  instructing  them.1 

1  This  justification  of  the  method  is  full  of  good  seuse  and  clearness. 


Guyot:  On   Teaching  Reading,  Writing,  etc.        155 

"  How,  then,  can  children  be  expected  to  learn  in  a  short  time 
and  with  pleasure,  or,  at  least,  without  very  great  trouble,  by 
commencing  to  make  them  read  in  Latin,  which  is  a  tongue  they 
ido  not  understand  in  the  least,  and  which  they  never  hear  spoken 
(for  that  would  be  of  great  use  to  them,  at  least  for  the  pronuncia- 
jbion)  except  while  they  are  being  taught  it  ?  Is  it  not  more  natural 
to  make  use  of  what  they  know  already,  in  order  to  teach  them 
what  they  do  not  know,  since  the  very  definition  of  the  method  of 
teaching  tells  us  to  act  in  this  manner  1  .  .  . 

"Now  French  boys  already  know  French,  of  which  they  are 
acquainted  with  a  large  number  of  words;  why  not,  then,  teach 
them  first  to  read  in  French,  since  this  method  would  be  shorter 
and  less  tedious1?  for  they  would  only  have  to  retain  in  their 
minds  the  shape  of  the  letters  and  their  combinations ;  in  which 
the  memory  of  the  things  and  the  words  that  they  already  know, 
with  what  they  are  constantly  hearing  in  every-day  life,  would  aid 
them  little  by  little  in  remembering  them  again ;  whereas  in  Latin 
they  are  not  helped  in  any  way,  everything  is  strange  and  new, 
and  they  can  only  fix  their  attention  on  the  characters  and  com- 
binations which  are  shown  them ;  and  this  is  the  cause  that  they 
only  retain  them  with  much  trouble  and  time,  during  which  they 
must  be  dinned  into  their  ears  over  and  over  again,  before  they  can 
remember  them  once,  having  nothing  to  hold  by,  neither  words, 
nor  things,  nor  what  they  hear  said  every  day. 

"Since,  then,  we  must  use  what  the  children  already  know  to 
teach  them  what  they  do  not  know,  which  is  a  general  rule,  with- 
out exception,  for  everything  we  wish  to  teach  them,  it  would  be 
proper  to  make  them  read  at  first  detached  words  only,  of  which 
they  know  the  things  they  represent,  as  those  which  they  commonly 
use,  as  bread,  a  bed,  a  room,  &c.  But  they  should  have  been 
shown  beforehand  the  shapes  and  characters  of  these  words  in  an 
alphabet,  making  them  pronounce  the  vowels  and  diphthongs  only, 
and  not  the  consonants,  which  they  should  be  taught  to  pronounce 
only  in  the  different  combinations  that  they  form  with  the  same 
vowels  or  diphthongs  in  the  syllables  and  words. 

"  For  yet  another  fault  is  committed  in  the  ordinary  method  of 
teaching  children  to  read,  which  is  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
taught  to  name  the  letters  separately,  both  consonants  and  vowels. 


156  Port- Royal  Education. 


Now  the  consonants  are  called  consonants  only  because  they  have 
no  sound  by  themselves,  but  they  must  be  joined  with  vowels  and 
sound  with  them.1  We  are,  then,  contradicting  ourselves  in 
teaching  to  pronounce  alone  letters  which  can  only  be  pronounced 
when  they  are  joined  with  others ;  for  in  pronouncing  the  conso- 
nants separately,  and  making  the  children  name  them,  we  always 
add  a  vowel,  namely,  e,  which,  belonging  neither  to  the  syllable 
nor  to  the  word,  makes  the  sound  of  the  letters  named  different 
from  their  sound  when  joined  with  others  ;  thus,  after  the  children 
have  spelled  all  the  letters  of  a  word  one  by  one,  they  cannot  pro- 
nounce them  altogether  in  the  same  word,  because  the  medley  of 
different  sounds  confuses  their  ears  and  imagination.  For  example, 
a  child  is  made  to  spell  the  word  bon,  which  is  composed  of  three 
letter  £,  o,  ra,  which  they  are  made  to  pronounce  one  after  the 
other.  Now  b,  pronounced  by  itself,  makes  be-,  o,  pronounced 
alone,  is  still  0,  for  it  is  a  vowel ;  but  n,  pronounced  alone,  makes 
enne.  How,  then,  can  this  child  understand  that  all  these  sounds 
that  he  has  pronounced  separately  in  spelling  these  three  letters  one 
after  the  other  can  only  make  this  single  sound,  bon  ?  He  can 
never  understand  this,  and  he  only  learns  to  put  them  together 
because  his  teacher  himself  puts  them  together,  and  shouts  in  his 
ear  over  and  over  again  this  single  sound,  bon. 

"  Again,  the  poor  child  is  made  to  spell  this  other  word,  jamais, 
and  it  is  done  in  this  way,  j-a-m-a-i-s,  jamais.  How  can  this 
child  imagine  that  the  six  sounds  which  he  has  pronounced  in 
spelling  these  six  letters  make  only  these  two,  jamais  ?  For,  when 
we  spell  the  letters  of  this  word  we  pronounce  separately  j-a-em— 
a-i-esse.  Here  are  six  or  seven  sounds,  of  which,  they  say,  he 
ought  to  make  these  two,  ja-mais.  Would  they  not  have  done  it 
sooner  by  making  him  pronounce  these  two  syllables  only,  ja-mais, 
and  not  all  the  consonants  and  vowels  separately,  which  only 
confuses  his  mind  by  this  multitude  of  different  sounds,  which  he 
can  never  put  together  as  you  wish  him  to  do  if  you  do  not  do  it 
yourself  and  pronounce  it  to  him  several  times  ?  The  same  thing 


1  The  definition  is  not  quite  exact,  since  there  are  consonants  which  have 
really  a  sound  by  themselves,  for  example,  /,  s,  and  even  r. 


Guyot :   On   Teaching  Reading,  Writing,  etc.        157 

may  bo  said  of  a  great  number  of  difficult  words,  as  aimoient 
faisoient,  disoient,  &C.1 

"  Besides,  you  may  make  a  child  spell  his  letters  as  much  as 
you  like,  but  he  will  never  learn  by  this  means  to  pronounce  the 
syllables  and  words;  it  is  only  the  use  and  habit  that  he  has 
of  hearing  the  same  sound  pronounced  many  times  when  they 
point  out  to  him  the  letters  which  make  him  learn  them.  But 
this  is  because  we  always  want  to  reason  with  children  and 
teach  them  by  rules  what  depends  on  usage  alone,  which  is  the 
only  rule  of  language.  And  if  you  will  pay  attention  to  what 
I  say  you  will  see  that  the  syllables  and  words  together  are 
repeated  to  them  so  many  times  that  at  last  they  retain  them,  and 
remember  that  such  and  such  letters  joined  together  have  such  a 
pronunciation,  which  they  would  never  otherwise  have  imagined 
by  spelling  the  letters  one  after  another.  Therefore  it  is  very 
useless  to  make  them  lose  so  much  time  and  pains  by  this  way  of 
spielling,  whereas  they  would  have  learnt  the  combinations  of 
letters  very  much  sooner  than  this  multitude  of  sounds  from 
which  they  are  desired  to  compose  one  or  two  syllables.  Thus 
the  knowledge  of  reading,  which  the  children  acquire  at  length,  is 
attributed,  without  reason,  to  this  manner  of  spelling  the  letters, 
but  it  is  only  an  effect  of  the  habit  they  have  of  hearing  the 
syllables  and  entire  words  pronounced  very  often.  And  for  a 
similar  reason  it  is  thought  that  the  rules  of  Despautere2  are  the 
cause  of  the  correctness  with  which  a  child  composes  in  Latin, 
although  in  composing  he  had  not  even  thought  of  them,  having 
only  followed  in  that  the  usage  of  the  Latin,  which  he  has  only 
learnt  by  reading  and  writing  and  by  making  many  mistakes 
which  have  been  corrected. 

"  After  having  shown  to  the  children  and  pronounced  the  five 


2  The  pronunciation  of  oi  of  the  imperfect  was  not  then  fixed.  Father 
Chiflet  wrote  in  1677  :  "  It  is  softer  and  more  common  among  the  upper 
classes  who  speak  well  to  pronounce  je  parlais.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  a 
fault  to  say  je  parlois,  since  at  Paris,  at  the  bar  and  in  the  pulpit,  many 
eloquent  speakers  do  not  condemn  this  pronunciation."  (Nouvelle  et  parfaite 
grammairefranqaise,  p.  203. ) 

2  Van  Pauteren,  in  French  Despautere  (1460-1520),  a  professor  at 
Louvain  and  Bois-le-Duc.  His  Latin  grammar  was  long  in  vogue  in 
schools. 


158  Port-Royal  Education. 

^vowels  a,  e,  i,  0,  u,  and  the  diphthongs  ae,  oe,  au,  eu,  ei,1 
;and  making  them  only  look  at  the  shapes  of  the  consonants 
'without  letting  them  pronounce  them  except  in  combination 
in  entire  syllables,  of  whicli  they  have  drawn  up  and  learnt  a 
list,  it  will  be  well  to  make  them  read  first  entire  words  detached 
from  one  another,  of  which  they  should  make  a  list  in  which  they 
would  only  insert  the  most  common  words  that  they  hear  most 
often  and  whose  meaning  they  know.  And  as  they  are  taught  to 
pray  to  God  from  the  age  of  four  or  five  years  (I  suppose  it 
is  done  in  French),  we  must  begin  by  their  prayers  and  the 
catechism,2  which  they  already  know  by  heart,  to  make  them 
read  a  connected  narrative,  then  break  the  thread  of  it  to  see 
if  they  read  from  a  knowledge  of  the  words,  or  by  heart  and 
rote ;  in  order  that,  when  they  can  read  their  prayers  and  their 
catechism  equally  well  anywhere  they  are  asked,  we  may  then 
begin  to  give  them  French  books. 

"  Being,  then,  in  a  position  to  be  able  to  learn  to  read  in  French 
books,  they  must  be  given  those  in  which  the  matter  is  adapted  to 
their  intelligence.  The  small  colloquies  of  Mathurin  Cordier3 
would  be  very  proper  for  this  use,  if  they  were  translated  into 
better  French ;  for  the  purity  of  their  native  language  must  not 
be  corrupted  from  this  early  age ;  but  the  fables  of  Phaedrus,  the 
Captivi  of  Plautus,  the  Bucolics  of  Yirgil,  the  three  comedies 


1  It  is  an  error  to  call  "  diphthong"  (two  sounds)  ae,  oe,  au,  eu,  ei,  since 
there  is  only  one  sound  represented  by  two  letters,  which  lose  their  proper 
sound  to  form  a  new  one.     The  Grammaire  g£ne~rale  of  Port-Royal  did  not 
commit  this  error  :    ' '  Eu,  as  it  is  in  feu,  pen,  is  only  a  simple  sound, 
although  we  write  it  with  two  vowels."  (Part  i.    ch.  i.)      However,   in 
chapter  iii.  the  authors  call  "diphthong"  the   sound  of  eau,  which  is, 
however,  simple. 

2  Even  if  the  law  had  not  taken  its  religious  character  from  the  school,  we 
do  not  think  that  these  are  books  to  interest  young  children.     The  subjects 
are  too  serious  and  beyond  their  capacity. 

3  "Cordier,  Mathurin,  a  priest  (1479-1564),  was  one  of  the  best  class 
regents  that  could  be  desired  ;  he  understood  Latin  well,  was  a  man  of  much 
virtue,  and  devoted  himself  to  his  office,   being  as  careful  to  instruct  his 
pupils  in  good  behaviour  as  in  good  Latinity.     He  employed  his  life  in 
teaching  children  at  Paris,  Never s,  Bourdcaux,  Geneva,  Neufchdtel,  Lausanne, 
and,  lastly,  again  at  Geneva,  where  he  died  on  Sept.  8,  1564,  aged  85,  teaching 
the  young  in  the  sixth  class  three  or  four  days  before  his  death.     There  is 
scarcely  a  book  that  has  served  more  than  that  to  accustom  children  to 
speak  Latin."  (BAYLE.) 


Guyot :   On   Teaching  Reading,  Writing,  etc.        159 

of  Terence,  these  letters  and  the  collection  of  Cicero's  letters 
might  be  very  useful  to  them ;  for,  by  this  means,  they  will  learn 
at  the  same  time  to  read  and  speak  their  own  language  with 
purity,  as  accomplished  men  talk  in  society,  which  is  the  principal 
style  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  bring  them  up,  and  they  will 
know  in  advance  the  subjects  contained  in  the  first  Latin  books 
that  they  will  read  or  learn  by  heart,  which  will  make  the 
understanding  of  them  easy,  of  which  the  beginning  is  so  painful. 
And,  in  this  way,  what  they  already  know  may  be  usefully 
employed  to  teach  them  what  they  do  not  know.1 

"  With  regard  to  writing,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  teach 
children  to  write  well,  because,  besides  its  usefulness,  it  is  a  very 
good  means  of  occupying  them  and  driving  away  tedium ;  for 
when  they  can  write  well,  they  like  to  do  so,  because  we 
naturally  like  to  do  what  we  do  well,  and  even  desire  to  excel 
in  it.  The  best  teachers  should  be  chosen  for  this,  provided  they 
will  take  the  trouble  and  be  careful  that  they  hold  the  pen  right, 
for  that  is  most  important.  They  must  not,  then,  be  allowed 
to  write  by  themselves  at  the  commencement,  but  before  their 
teachers,  until  they  have  acquired  a  good  habit  of  holding  the 
pen,  and  when  they  have  done  that  they  should  often  pass| 
the  dry  pen  over  the  lines  of  their  copy,  in  order  that  the  muscles,  / 
nerves,  and  the  whole  hand  should  acquire  the  knack  and 
movement  necessary  for  good  writing.2  And  I  should  also  wish 
that  they  should  not  be  given  copies  without  rime  or  reason,  but 
some  beautiful  sentences  in  French  or  Latin  verse,  which  might 
serve  to  regulate  their  mind  and  their  manners.3  They  would 

1  There  is  an  ingenious  foresight  in  making  the  children  read  in  French 
what  they  will  study  later  in  Latin.     But,  looking  closely  into  the  matter, 
are  the  proposed  works  well  chosen  ?    The  Fables  of  Phaedrus  are  perfectly 
suitable.     But  the  Comedies  of  Terence  and  Plautus  and  Cicero's  Letters  ? 
It  is  a  question  of  children  "of  tender  years,"  who  have  just  overcome  the 
first  difficulties  of  reading  ;  this  nutriment  is  much  too  strong. 

2  This  is  a  very  judicious  recommendation,  and  more  simple  in  practice 
than  the  use  of  those  tablets  over  which  the  pupil  moves  his  pencil  in  letters 
formed  of  sunken  lines. 

3  At  the  time  that  Guyot  was  giving  this  wise  advice  Mine,  de  Maintenon 
wrote  with  her  own  hand  in  the  copy -books  of  her  pupils  at  Saint-Cyr  these 
maxims  as  writing  copies :  *  *  Seek  the  truth  in  everything. — Love  to  give  pleasure 
and  never  lie. — There  is  nothing  disgraceful  but  ill-doing. — Submit  to  reason 
as  soon  as  you  know  it. — Be  severe  towards  yourselves  and  indulgent  to  others. 


160  Port-Royal  Education. 

^unconsciously  learn  a  great  number  of  them,   which  would  be 

!so  much  good  seed  whose  fruit  would  be  seen  in  due  season. 

[It  would  be  well  to  let  them  continue  this  exercise  for  several 

years,  and  not  to  allow  them  to  write  either  their  themes  or 

translations  badly ;  for,  besides  that  everything  that  we  do  should 

,  be  well  done,1  as  far  as  possible,  they  would  soon  unlearn  what 

[  they  have  learnt  with  much  time  and  pains. 

"  I  come  now  to  the  Latin,  and  I  suppose,  as  everybody  agrees, 
that  as  native  and  living  languages  should  be  chiefly  learnt  by 
use  and  intercourse  with  persons  who  speak  them  well,  so  the 
dead  languages  should  be  learnt  by  reading  the  authors  who 
formerly  spoke  them  well,  and  who  live  and  speak  to  us  now,  in 
a  manner,  in  their  works.  But  as  the  life  and  speech  of  these 
dead  authors  is  dying,  not  to  say  quite  dead,  and  the  tone  of 
their  voice  is  so  low  and  difficult  to  hear  that  it  scarcely  differs 
from  silence,  it  would  be  an  incomparable  advantage  to  resuscitate, 
in  some  sort,  these  dead  authors,  and  re-animate  them  with  our 
spirit,  voice,  and  action,  that  they  may  teach  us  in  a  vivid  and 
natural  manner.2  And  this  may  be  done  by  translating  their 
works  viva  voce  to  the  children,  or  reading  the  translation  to  them, 
in  this  way  serving  them  as  a  living  and  animated  interpreter, 
who  speaks  to  them  in  their  own  tongue,  as  the  dead  would  speak 
to  them  in  theirs  if  they  were  still  living.  And  this  shows  that, 
translation  being  the  means  that  most  nearly  approaches  the 
natural  manner  of  learning  living  languages,  it  is  also  the  most 
natural  and  useful  means  of  learning  the  dead  languages. 

For  is  it  not  an  inverted  order,  and  quite  contrary  to  nature,  to 
begin  by  writing  in  a  language  which  they  not  only  cannot  speak 
but  do  not  even  understand?  Children  who  are  beginning  to 
learn  their  native  language  begin  by  hearing  it  before  speaking 


— If  you  feel  pleasure  when  you  are  reproved,  believe  that  you  will  have  merit. 
— Let  your  conscience  be  simple  and  sincere. — Never  go  to  rest  without  having 
learnt  something,"  &c. 

1  An  excellent  precept  to  recommend.    Of  what  use  is  an  hour's  application 
to  the  writing  lesson,  if  they  scribble  the  rest  of  the  time  ?    Good  teachers 
have,  from  the  same  motive,  suppressed  the  rough  copy. 

2  There  is  in  all  this  page  a  very  clear  perception  of  the  value  of  oral 
teaching,  of  the  living  word  of  the  teacher.     Guyot  returns  to  the  subject  a 
little  further  on  with  a  praiseworthy  persistence. 


Guyot :    On   Teaching  Reading,  Writing,  etc.       161 

it,  and  speaking  it  before  writing  it.  Why,  then,  reverse  this 
order  that  nature  prescribes  in  order  to  make  children  begin  to 
write  in  a  language  they  do  not  understand?  And  this  shows 
that  the  method  which  is  so  common  of  making  children  write 
Latin  themes  before  teaching  them  to  understand  Latin,  to  say 
nothing  of  speaking  it,  is  a  method  entirely  opposed  to  nature, 
of  which  art  should  be  the  imitator.  It  is,  then,  certain  that  we 
must  begin  by  teaching  the  children  Latin  in  order  that  they  may 
understand  it  before  they  speak  or  write  it,  and  that  there  is  no 
other  means  than  translation  of  making  them  understand  it. 

"Now  there  are  two  sorts  of  translation,  one  viva  voce,  the 
other  written.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  first  is  incomparably 
more  useful  and  more  natural  than  the  second ;  for  the  voice  in 
this  matter  is  like  a  faithful  interpreter,  who  conducts  us  in  a 
living  manner  into  the  country  of  the  dead,  and  makes  us  speak 
and  converse  with  them,  or,  at  least,  makes  us  listen  to  them 
speaking  and  conversing  with  us,  as  he  would  make  us  speak 
and  converse  with  Turks  or  Germans,  first  letting  us  hear  their 
language,  then  speak  with  them,  and  finally  write  to  them. 

"But  the  better  to  understand  the  advantage  that  viva  voce 
translation  has  over  written,  it  must  be  remarked  that  words  have 
a  double  signification,  one  natural,  the  other  artificial;  for,  as 
words  are  arbitrary  signs  of  things  or  of  mental  ideas,  they  are 
also  natural  signs  of  the  emotions  of  the  heart ;  and  this  natural 
signification  is  lost,  in  a  manner,  in  writings,  at  least  for  those 
who  are  only  commencing  to  learn  a  dead  language,  for  they  only 
understand  the  artificial  signification  of  the  things  according  to 
the  ideas  that  it  awakens  in  their  mind,  which  ideas  are  usually 
rather  obscure  and  confused  in  children ;  but  the  viva  voce  trans- 
lation better  preserves  this  signification  of  the  emotions  of  the 
heart,  for  voice  was  given  to  man,  not  only  to  make  known 
things  or  the  ideas  they  have  of  them,  but  also  to  express  the 
various  emotions  of  their  heart  with  respect  to  these  same  things, 
or  the  ideas  they  have  of  them.  And  this  they  do  in  many 
other  ways,  as  by  gesture  and  action,  by  the  movements  of  their 
hands,  eyes,  head,  or  shoulders,  in  fine,  by  the  mute  language  of 
the  whole  body.  It  is  this  language  of  the  heart  that  must  be 
heard  in  order  to  understand  a  language  well,  because  it  is,  as 

M 


1 62  Port- Royal  Education. 

it  were,  its  spirit  and  life.  For  it  is  the  passions  and  emotions 
of  the  heart  which  make  all  the  various  beauties  and  figures  of 
the  discourse,  and  which  give  it  that  omnipotence  which  is 
attributed  to  eloquence  and  the  distinct  air  or  character  which 
is  remarked  in  it,  and  which  is  found,  not  only  in  the  particular 
language  of  each  individual  man,  but  even  in  that  of  whole 
tribes  and  nations.  For  some  speak  in  a  very  gentle  and  others 
in  a  rough  manner,  some  in  a  modest,  others  in  a  haughty  and 
boastful  manner,  some  in  a  simple  and  artless  style,  others  in  a 
figurative  and  embellished  style,  some  affect  brevity,  others  a 
great  flow  of  words,  some  speak  uncivilly,  others  with  politeness, 
some  with  amorous  and  tender  air,  others  in  a  dry  and  harsh 
tone ;  all  these  differences  spring  from  the  emotions  f-f  the  heart. 

"Thus,  in  order  to  bring  out  this  natural  signification  of  the 
movements  of  the  soul  which  accompanies  the  artificial  significa- 
tion of  the  thoughts,  the  teacher  must  brighten  the  lesson  by  his 
tone  of  voice  and  his  gestures  in  reading  it  to  them,  first  in 
French  and  then  in  Latin,  with  all  the  appropriate  inflections 
and  accents.  They  will  then  understand  and  retain  it  much 
sooner,  because  it  will  appeal  to  them  more;  whereas  a  simple 
reading  which  they  do  themselves  or  which  is  done  by  the 
teacher  makes  little  impression  on  their  minds.  Thus  an  orator 
or  an  actor  makes  us  understand  the  subject  of  a  piece  much 
better  than  a  simple  reading  of  it,  because,  adding  his  voice  and 
action  to  the  matter,  he  makes  the  ideas  strike  the  mind,  and  the 
emotions  move  the  heart  more  vividly.  This  is  how  we  breathe 
life  into  a  dead  language,  and  give  a  double  life  to  a  language  yet 
living.  This  opens  and  even  elevates  the  children's  minds,  by 
stirring  up  and  agitating  them  powerfully,  and  thus  renders  them 
capable  of  imitating,  by  art,  the  natural  passions,  which  they  can 
only  understand  and  imitate  by  these  means,  not  being  yet  able 
to  be  touched  by  them.  .  .  . 

"Since,  then,  French  is  to  serve  us  as  introducer  to  and 
interpreter  in  the  Latin  country,  it  must  take  a  step  in  advance, 
I  mean,  French  must  be  taught  before  Latin;  and  the  children 
should  be  so  well  grounded  in  the  ordinary  and  familiar  French 
style  by  reading  the  books  that  I  have  mentioned,  making  them 
learn  them  by  heart,  that  the  Latin  which  they  will  afterwards 


Guyot :    On   Teaching  Reading,  Writing^  etc.       163 

learn  shall  not  be  able  to  injure  or  corrupt  the  purity  of  their 
French.  Now  the  younger  children  are  more  fitted  to  learn 
French  in  this  way  than  the  elder,  because,  having  an  imperfect 
idea  of  things,  they  cannot  detach  them  from  the  words  by  which 
they  entered  their  minds,  being,  so  to  say,  clothed  with  the  terms 
and  expressions  which  have  made  them  conceive  them ;  whereas 
the  elder  children,  conceiving  things  in  their  own  way,  and  accord- 
ing to  opinions  which  they  have  previously  formed,  express  them 
also  in  their  own  way,  without  confining  themselves  to  the  words 
of  their  author.  The  younger  children,  then,  must,  as  I  have 
said,  be  first  grounded  in  the  ordinary  and  familiar  French,  in 
order  that  the  Latin,  which  they  will  learn  afterwards,  and  which 
is  so  centre  y  to  the  French  in  its  construction,  may  not  injure 
their  native  language,  as  usually  happens.  For  we  see  that 
children  who  have  been  taught  in  a  different  manner  have  often 
unlearnt  French,  or  rather  have  not  learnt  it  at  all,  in  learning 
Latin,  and  have  even  rendered  themselves  more  incapable  of 
learning  it,  as  may  be  perceived  by  setting  them  to  write  in 
French.  .  .  .  And  this  is  the  cause  that  at  the  present  time  the 
most  learned  persons,  and  those  who  best  understand  the  authors, 
having  neglected  their  native  language  in  order  to  learn  foreign 
tongues,  and  having  given  up  intercourse  with  the  living  in  order 
to  converse  only  with  the  dead,  can  only  translate  their  works 
in  a  lifeless  and  foreign  manner,  and  thus  render  themselves  less 
capable  of  filling  the  higher  posts  in  the  church  and  at  the 
bar.  .  .  . 

"  The  children,  then,  must  acquire,  through  these  French  trans- 
lations, a  moderate  usage  of  their  native  language,  which  consists 
in  the  correctness  of  the  words  and  their  combinations,  and  in 
clearness  of  style  even  in  ordinary  and  familiar  expressions. 
They  should  not,  therefore,  read  many  French  books  of  various 
styles,  and  especially  those  of  a  bad  style,  for  that  would  make 
them  incapable  of  distinguishing  the  good  from  the  bad,  as 
persons  who  habituate  themselves  to  all  kinds  of  wines  can  no 
longer  appreciate  nor  distinguish  their  differences ;  and  their 
minds  should  only  be  fed  on  delicate  and  intellectual  things  if 
we  wish  to  give  them  a  delicate  and  intellectual  taste.  For  this 
reason  it  is  a  great  error  to  make  them  read  indifferently  all  sorts 


164  Port- Royal  Education. 

of  authors,  whether  Latin  or  French,  and  those  who  guide  them 
in  this  way  show  that  they  themselves  have  had  the  misfortune 
not  to  be  better  guided,  so  that  the  fault  that  was  committed  in 
their  education  is  perpetuated  indefinitely  by  their  instructing 
others  as  they  themselves  were  instructed;  and  very  few  are 
found  who  rise  above  custom  to  follow  reason.  .  .  . 

"  Since,  then,  our  intention  is  to  form  the  children  to  an  ordinary 
and  familiar  style,  we  must  choose  books  proper  for  this  object, 
both  in  matter  and  style1.  .  .  .  Add  to  them,  for  Sundays  and 
Holy-days,  the  Lives  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Desert,  the  last  Lives 
of  the  Saints,  written  by  M.  d'Andilly,  his  History  of  Josephus, 
the  Confessions  of  St.  Augustine,  the  Imitation  of  Christ,  the 
Homilies  of  St.  Chrysostom,  and  a  few  other  books  or  histories 
well  written  in  French.  This  will  fortify  them  in  purity  of 
morals  as  well  as  in  French,  and  furnish  them  with  many  good 
things,  of  which  they  should  lay  up  a  store  in  good  time.  .  .  . 
We  may  add  a  few  of  the  most  chaste  poets,  full  of  lively 
descriptions,  rich  comparisons,  and  good  moral  teaching;  for  the 
sweetness  of  the  verses  will  charm  their  ears,  and  their  harmonious 
cadence  will  accustom  them  to  a  better  pronunciation,  and  even 
elevate  their  minds  above  ordinary  thoughts  and  expressions. 

"Children  should  read  a  little  at  a  time  and  often,  in  a  loud 
and  clear  voice,  because  that  will  exercise  the  voice  and  chest, 
and  give  an  opportunity  of  teaching  them  to  pronounce  well,  by 
giving  them  the  necessary  accent  to  mark  the  different  shades 
which  are  appropriate  to  the  subjects,  and  correct  the  false 
cadences  or  inflections  of  voice  into  which  they  fall;  thus  they 
will  be  habituated  to  fineness  of  ear,  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
words,  and  the  harmony  of  the  periods,  and,  in  addition,  by 
reading  a  little  at  a  time  and  often,  their  attention  will  not  be 
\  fatigued.  For  children  are  usually  very  inattentive,  and  too 
[long  application  deadens  their  mind  and  extinguishes  its  fire.  It 
will  be  well  also  to  read  aloud  before  them,  enlivening  what  is 
read  by  the  tone  and  accent  proper  to  the  subject,  and  to  make 
them  attend  to  it ;  that  will  do  much  to  form  them,  for  they  have 
a  natural  inclination  to  imitate  and  to  learn  by  imitation.  And 

1  He  repeats  here  the  list  already  given  above. 


Guyot :    On  Teaching  Reading,  Writing,  etc.       165 

this  is  noticed  even  in  animals,  so  that  tones,  gestures,  and  move- 
ments make  a  natural  impression  on  their  intelligence,  and  even 
on  their  bodily  organs,  which  turns  and  disposes  them  to  imitate 
what  they  see  and  hear,  as  those  who  dance  make  others  dance, 
and  those  who  make  grimaces  cause  others  to  do  the  same,  without 
their  intending  or  perceiving  it.  ... 

"It  would  also  be  very  useful  to  make  the  children  repeat, 
then  and  there,  what  they  have  retained  of  their  reading;1  for 
that  makes  them  more  attentive,  and  the  reflection  that  they 
make  then  will  fix  the  subjects  more  firmly  in  their  minds,  on 
which  the  images  of  the  words  have  just  been  impressed,  following 
the  order  of  their  reading,  especially  when  the  subjects  are  new 
to  them,  and  they  want  terms  and  other  expressions  to  speak  of 
them;  for  their  discourse  still  retains  all  the  arrangement  of  the 
words,  without  a  break,  and  if  they  happen  to  miss  or  hesitate 
they  must  be  prompted  from  the  book,  if  only  in  order  not  to 
change  or  misplace  anything  in  their  minds ;  and  this  arrangement 
of  the  words  is  extremely  important,  because  they  fail  in  that 
more  than  in  the  correctness  of  the  words  themselves;  this  is  a 
common  fault  in  those  who  do  not  speak  or  write  well,  whether  in 
French  or  Latin. 

"But  care  must  be  taken,  in  exercising  them  in  speaking  or 
writing,  that  they  do  it  with  clearness  and  precision,  and  as  they 
can  only  do  so  by  the  clear  and  accurate  knowledge  they  have  of 
things,  and  according  to  the  construction  of  each  language,  the 
same  things  should  be  explained  to  them  clearly  in  a  few  words ; 
for  the  multitude  and  diversity  of  words,  generally  springing 
from  indistinctness  and  confusion  of  thought,  will  cause  the  same 
indistinctness  and  confusion  in  the  minds  of  the  children.2  And 
for  this  reason  they  should  usually  be  set  to  speak  or  write  only 


1  A  very  good  and  useful  practice,  applicable  even  to  elementary  classes, 
with  children   who  cannot  yet  write ;    it  fixes  their  attention,   develops 
their  intelligence,  teaches  them  to  speak  correctly,  and  prepares  them  for 
composition. 

2  The  only  means  of  avoiding  this  capital  fault  in  teaching  is  a  con- 
scientious preparation  of  every  lesson,  in  addition  to  the  general  preparation 
that  a  teacher  should  never  neglect  by  keeping  himself  abreast  of  methods 
and  books,  and  in  deepening  and  completing  his  knowledge  by  extensive 
reading. 


1 66  Port- Royal  Education. 

on  the  subjects  that  they  know  best,  and  in  the  style  and  terms 
in  which  they  have  had  most  exercise ;  otherwise  they  speak 
confusedly  as  their  thoughts  are,  and  habituate  themselves  so 
to  speak,  and  to  be  satisfied  with  what  they  do  not  understand, 
which  is  the  cause  of  a  very  common  fault  among  men,  that  is, 
of  speaking  much  on  what  they  understand  very  little.  It  is 
necessary,  then,  to  explain  to  the  children  what  they  do  not 
understand,  and  to  question  them  frequently,  because  we  often 
imagine  that  they  understand  very  well  what  in  fact  they  do 
not  understand,  judging  of  their  capacity  by  our  own.  They 
should  even  be  required  to  ask  about  what  they  do  not  under- 
stand, and  when  they  ask  of  their  own  accord,  although  the 
subject  may  be  above  their  capacity,  we  must  not  fail  to  instruct 
them  with  so  much  the  more  care,  as  they  are  more  disposed  to 
1  profit  by  it,  since  the  curiosity  which  made  them  ask  has  opened 
j  their  minds  and  rendered  them  capable  of  understanding  what 
iwill  be  said  to  them  then.  Children  should  be  kept  for  a  long 
time  to  the  same  style ;  for,  in  that,  time  will  make  more  impres- 
sion than  all  the  observations  that  may  be  made  to  them  on  the 
language,  as  water  hollows  out  the  stone  more  by  falling  drop  by 
drop  than  by  falling  all  at  once  with  great  force. 

"  They  may  begin  to  write  in  French  before  they  write  in 
Latin,  by  setting  them  to  write  short  dialogues,  narratives,  or 
stories,  little  descriptions  or  short  letters,  leaving  them  the  choice 
of  subjects  from  their  reading,  that  they  may  not  be  accustomed 
to  write  obscurely  and  to  be  satisfied  with  what  they  do  not 
understand,  which  makes  them  lose  the  power  of  distinguishing 
light  from  darkness,  makes  them  take  the  false  for  the  true,  the 
doubtful  for  the  certain,  in  fine,  evil  for  good.  .  .  . 

"  I  say  nothing  about  synonyms  and  such  expressions,  about  the 
order  and  arrangement  of  the  words,  their  natural  or  figurative 
meaning,  their  connection  and  combinations,  figures  and  transi- 
tions, the  turn  of  the  discourse,  or  how  to  break  it  off,  take  it 
up  again  and  continue  it.  This  must  be  reserved  for  practice,1 


1  It  13  evidently  in  the  reading  of  a  passage,  or  the  explanation  of  a  text, 
that  all  these  details  should  be  taken  up,  much  more  usefully  than  in  a  dry 
and  barren  nomenclature. 


Nicole:  Education  of  a  Prince.  167 

and  when  they  are  more  advanced  in  intelligence  and  judgment ; 
it  is  better  to  tell  the  scholars  these  things  than  to  demand  them 
of  them,  since  any  rules  that  may  be  given  them  do  not  so  much 
prevent  faults  as  serve  to  correct  them  when  they  have  been 
made. 

"  It  is  not  desirable  that  whole  books  should  be  set  to  be  learnt 
by  heart,  but  only  the  finest  passages;  for  the  memory  of  children, 
which  has  its  limits,  should  only  be  charged  with  what  is  most 
excellent  in  books ;  it  must,  nevertheless,  be  well  exercised.  .  .  ." 
(Guyot,  Billets  de  Ciceron,  1668.  Preface.) 


GENERAL  VIEWS  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  A  PRINCE.* 

....  The  most  essential  quality  in  the  preceptor  of  a  prince 
is  a  certain  nameless  one  which  does  not  belong  to  any  special 
profession ;  it  is  not  simply  the  being  qualified  in  history,  mathe- 
matics, languages,  politics,  philosophy,  ceremonies,  and  the 
interests  of  princes ;  all  that  may  be  made  up  for.  It  is  not 
necessary  for  him  who  is  charged  with  the  instruction  of  a 
prince  to  teach  him  everything;  it  suffices  that  he  teach  him 
the  use  of^everything.  He  must  necessarily  be  assisted  some- 
times, and  while  he  is  preparing  for  certain  things  be  only  a 
witness  of  what  is  taught  by  others.  But  that  essential  quality 
which  renders  him  fit  for  this  employment  cannot  be  made  up 
for,  it  cannot  be  borrowed  from  another,  nor  can  it  be  prepared 
for.  Nature  implants  it,  and  it  is  improved  by  long  exercise  and 
much  reflexion.  And  thus  those  who  have  it  not  when  they  are 
a  little  advanced  in  age  will  never  have  it. 

—  It  cannot  be  better  explained  than  by  saying  that  it  is  that 
quality  which  makes  a  man  always  blame  what  is  blameworthy, 
praise  what  is  praiseworthy,  disparage  what  is  low,  impress  with 
a  sense  of  what  is  great,  judge  everything  wisely  and  equitably, 

1  It  is  a  sign  of  the  times,  and  very  honourable  to  our  age,  that  the  advice 
given  by  Nicole  on  the  education  of  a  prince  may  be  recommended  without 
exaggeration  to  the  teachers  of  the  people.  A  very  slight  change  is  neces- 
sary to  adapt  it  to  the  needs  of  elementary  education,  both  to  the  training 
of  the  teaching  staff  in  the  normal  schools,  and  to  the  proper  direction  of 
elementary  studies. 


1 68  Port- Royal  Education. 

and  express  his  judgments  in  an  agreeable  manner,  suitable  to 
those  to  whom  he  speaks,  and,  in  fine,  makes  him  direct  the  mind 
of  his  pupil  to  the  truth  in  everything. 

—  It  must  not  be  imagined  that  he  always  does  this  from 
special  reflection,  or  that  he  stops  every  moment  to  give  rules 
on  good  and  evil,  the  true  and  the  false.     On  the  contrary,  he 
almost  always  does  it  imperceptibly,  by  an  ingenious  turn  that 
he  gives  to  the  subject,   which  exposes  to  view  what  is  grand 
and  deserves  to  be  considered,  and  hides  that  which  ought  not 
to  be  seen,  which  makes  vice  ridiculous  and  virtue  pleasing,  which 
forms  the  mind  imperceptibly  to  like  and  appreciate  good  things, 
and  to  have  a  dislike  and  aversion  for  bad  things.     So  that  it 
often  happens  that  the  same  story  or  maxim  which  aids  in  form- 
ing the  mind  when  it  is  used  by  an  able  and  judicious  man  only 
serves  to  injure  it  when  it  is  used  by  a  man  who  is  not  so. 

—  Ordinary    preceptors    only    think    themselves    obliged    to 
instruct    the    princes   at    certain    hours,    when    they   give    them 
what  they  call  a  lesson;  but  the  man  of  whom  we  are  speaking 
has  no  fixed  hour  for  lessons,  or,  rather,  he  gives  his  pupils  a  lesson 
at  all  hours  ;  for  he  often  instructs  him  as  much  during  play-time 
and  visits,  or  by  conversations  and  table-talk,  as  when  he  is  setting 
him  to  read  books.     For  his  principal  aim  being  to  form  his  judg- 
ment, the  different  subjects  which  offer  themselves  are  often  more 
appropriate  for  this  end  than  studied  speeches,  there  being  nothing 
which  sinks  into  the  mind  less  than  what  enters  it  under  the  not 
very  agreeable  form  of  a  lesson  and  of  teaching. 

—  As  this  mode  of  instructing  is  unperceived,  the  advantage 
drawn  from  it  is  so  too,  in  a  certain  degree,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  not 
perceived  by  outward  and  visible  signs ;  and  this  deceives  persons 
of  small  intelligence,  who  imagine  that  a  child  instructed  in  this 
manner  is  not  more  advanced  than  another,  because,  perhaps,  he 
cannot  make  a  better  translation  from  Latin  into  French,  or  does 
not  repeat  a  lesson  of  Virgil  better;   and  thus,  judging  of  the 
instruction  of   their   children  only  by  these  trifles,    they  often 
make  less  account  of  a  really  able  man  than  of  one  who  has  but 
small  knowledge  and  an  unintelligent  mind. 

Not  that  common  things  should  be  neglected  in  the  instruction 
of  princes,  and  that  they  should  not  be  taught  languages,  history, 


Nicole :   Education  of  a  Prince.  1 69 

chronology,  geography,  mathematics,  and  even  jurisprudence  up  to 
a  certain  point.  Their  studies  must  be  regulated  as  those  of  other 
persons  are.  The  aim  should  be  to  make  them  industrious. 
They  should  pass  from  one  occupation  to  another  without 
leaving  any  vacant  or  unoccupied  time.  Every  opportunity  of 
teaching  them  something  useful  should  be  cleverly  turned  to 
account.  If  possible,  they  should  not  be  ignorant  of  anything 
that  is  celebrated  in  the  world.  All  this  is  good,  useful,  and 
necessary  in  itself,  provided  that  a  stand  is  not  made  there  as 
if  it  were  the  end  of  their  instruction,  but  it  should  be  used  to 
form  their  habits  and  their  judgment. 

—  To  form  the  judgment  is  to  give  to  the  mind  the  taste  for 
and  perception  of  what  is  true,  to  render  it  acute  in  recognizing 
rather  obscure  false  reasonings,  to  teach  it  not  to  allow  itself  to  be 
dazzled  by  the  false  glitter  of  words  void  of  sense,  nor  to  be 
satisfied  with  indefinite  words   or   principles,   and  never  to  be 
contented  until  it  has  probed  things   to  the  bottom ;    it  is  to 
render  it  quick  to  seize  the  point  in  intricate  matters,    and  to 
distinguish  those  which  depart  from  it;  it  is  to  furnish  it  with 
the  principles  of  truth,  which  help  to  discover  it  in  all  things, 
and  especially  in  those  of  which  it  has  most  need.  .  .  . 

—  Although  the  study  of  morality  should  be  the  principal  and 
most  constant  of  those  to  which  princes  are  set,  nevertheless  it 
should  be  carried  on  in  a  manner  suited  to  their  age  and  the 
quality   of    their   mind,   so  that  not   only  they   should   not   be 
burdened   with  it,  ]}n  fc  sh  on  lj . jH?t_fi v&rL-  ^-  aware-  of-  it.      The 
aim  should  be   for  them  to  know  all   morality  almost  without 
knowing  that  there  is  a  morality,1  or  that  there  was  a  design 
to  teach  it  to  them ;    so  that  when  they  come  to  study  it  in  the 
course  of  their  lessons,  they  will  be  astonished  at  knowing  before- 
hand much  more  than  is  taught  in  them. 

1  Bain  equally  recommends  this  indirect  but  only  effective  method  of 
moral  instruction  :  *  *  Every  man  who  is  able  to  maintain  the  order  and 
discipline  necessary  to  good  intellectual  teaching  is  sure  to  leave  on  the 
children's  minds  impressions  of  true  morality,  even  without  intending  to  do 
so.  If,  besides,  the  teacher  possesses  sufficient  tact  to  make  his  pupils  like 
their  work,  and  submit  freely  and  willingly  to  the  restraint  that  study  im- 
poses, so  that  they  have,  in  sum,  only  good  feelings  towards  their  school- 
fellows and  himself,  he  may  be  called  an  excellent  teacher  of  morals,  whether 
he  has  wished  to  earn  this  title  or  not."  (La  science  de  ^education,  p.  292.) 


I/O  Port-Royal  Education. 

—  Nothing  is  more  difficult  than  to  adapt  ourselves  thus  to 
children's  minds;  and  a  man  of  the  world  rightly  said  that  this 
power  of   adaptation  to  these  childish  ways  was  the  result  of  a 
well-educated  mind.      It  is  easy  to  speak  on  morality  for  an  hour ; 

ibut  to  refer  everything  to  it  without  a  child  perceiving  it  and 
becoming  disgusted  demands  a  tact  which  few  persons  possess. 

—  There  are  two  things  in  vices  :  their  unlawfulness,  which 
makes  them  displeasing  to  God ;   and  their  folly,  which  makes 
them    despicable    to    men.      Children,     usually,     are    not    very 
sensible  of   the  first,  but  they  can  be  made  to   feel  the  second 
in    many    ingenious    ways   that   opportunities    offer.     Thus,    by 
making  them  hate  vices  as  ridiculous,1  they  will  be  led  to  hate 
them  as  contrary  to  the  laws  of  God,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
impression  they  make  on  their  minds  will  be  weakened.  .  .  . 

—  It  is  necessary  to  know  the  failings  of  the  child  whom  we 
instruct ;    that   is  to   say,  to   notice   the  bent  of  his  desires,  in 
order  to  use  all  our  tact  to  diminish  it  by  removing  all  that 
strengthens    it,    always    carefully    distinguishing    passing    faults 
that  age  will  remove  from  those  which  increase  with  age. 

—  The  aim  should  be  not  only  to  preserve  him  from  failings, 
but  to  scatter  in  his  mind  some  seeds  that  will  aid  him  to  rise  if 
he  should  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  let  himself  fall  into  them.  .  .  . 

—  It  is  not  only  necessary  to  form  their  minds  to  virtue  as  far 
as  possible,  but  it  is  also  necessary  to  adapt  their  bodies  to  it;  that 
is  to  say,  to  prevent  the  body  being  an  obstacle  to  their  leading  a 
regular  life,  leading  them,  by  its  natural  instincts,  into  irregu- 
larities and  disorders.2 

For  it  must  be  known  that,  men  being  composed  of  mind  and 
body,  the  bad  direction  given  to  the  body  in  youth  is  often,  in  the 
sequel,  a  great  obstacle  to  piety.  There  are  some  who  habituate 

1  This  is  one  of  the  favourite  themes  of  Mme.  de  Maintenon  :  "Consider 
that  the  best  of  your  girls  are  those  who  appear  the  most  vain  .   ,  ,  .  with 
a  certain  vanity  that  makes  them   afraid   to   be  thought  children,  which 
renders  them  sensitive  to  a  public  mortification,  .  .  .  They  must  die  to  this 
sensitiveness  when  they  are  more  advanced  in  piety  ;  but  before  dying  to  it 
they  must  have  lived  in  it." 

2  One  of  the  advantages  of  gymnastics  is  to  usefully  expend  the  strength 
of  the  young,  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  body  and  mind,  to  secure  a 
refreshing  sleep,   and  thus  remove  dangerous  temptations.      I  think  ^  this 
moral  action  of  physical  exercises  needs  to  be  better  understood  than  it  is. 


Nicole :   Education  of  a  Prince.  1 7 1 

themselves  to  be  so  restless,  so  impatient,  and  so  hasty  as  to 
become  incapable  of  uniform  and  tranquil  occupations;  others 
become  so  delicate,  that  they  cannot  bear  anything  that  is  in  the 
least  painful.  Some  become  subject  to  a  mortal  tedium  that 
torments  them  all  their  lives. 

It  will  be  said  that  these  are  defects  of  the  mind,  but  they 
have  a  permanent  cause  in  the  body,  and  therefore  they  continue 
even  when  the  mind  contributes  nothing  to  them.  .  .  . 

—  Love  of  books  and  reading  is  a  general  preservative  against 
a  great  number  of  irregularities  to  which  the  great  are  subject 
when  they  have  nothing  to  occupy  them,  and  therefore  it  cannot 
be  too  much  instilled  into  young  princes.  They  should  be 
accustomed  to  read  much  and  to  hear  much  read,  and  to  awaken 
their  minds  that  they  may  find  amusement  in  it.  They  should 
even  be  attracted  to  it  by  the  character  of  the  books,  as  by  books 
of  history,  voyages,  and  geography,  which  would  be  of  no  little 
use  to  them  if  they  would  acquire  the  habit  of  passing  a  con- 
siderable time  in  it  without  tedium  and  without  ill-humour.1 

SPECIAL  ADVICE  CONCERNING  STUDIES. 

The  aim  of  instruction  is  to  carry  our  minds  to  the  highesti 
point  they  are  capable  of  attaining.2  I 

It  does  not  give  memory,  imagination,  nor  intelligence,  but  it 
cultivates  them  all.  By  strengthening  them  one  by  another  the 
judgment  is  aided  by  the  memory,  and  the  memory  is  assisted  by 
the  imagination  and  the  judgment. 

When  some  of  these  parts  are  absent  they  should  be  supplied 
by  others.  Thus  the  tact  of  a  master  is  shown  in  setting  his 
scholars  to  things  for  which  they  have  a  natural  liking.3  Some 

1  It  was  one  of  Mine,  de  Sevigne's  great  troubles  to  see  her  daughter 
and  grand  -  daughter  appreciate  so  little  the  study  of  history.      "What  a 
misfortune,"  she  says  gaily,  "  if  Pauline  is  obliged  to  pinch  her  nose  to 
take  it,"  as  if  it  were  a  medicine  !     To  grow  weary  of  history  !  why  it  is 
the  support  of  all  the  world  ! 

2  The  writers  of  Port-Royal  have  nowhere  found  a  broader   and  more 
admirable  formula. 

3  This  tact,  which  bears  fruit  in  competitive  examinations,  does  not  in  the 
least  deserve  encouragement.     It  is  no  doubt  necessary  to  cultivate  natural 
aptitudes,    but  chiefly   to   endeavour  to   maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the 
faculties,  as  lands  are  improved  in  which  there'is  an  excess  of  such  or  such  a 
constituent  element  of  the  soil. 


I72  Port- Royal  Education. 

children  should  be  instructed  almost  solely  in  what  depends  on 
memory,  because  their  memories  are  strong  but  their  judgment 
weak,  and  others  should  at  first  be  set  to  things  requiring  judg- 
ment, because  they  have  more  judgment  than  memory. 

It  is  not  properly  the  teachers  nor  extraneous  instruction  that 
cause  things  to  be  understood,  at  most  they  only  expose  them  to 
the  interior  light  of  the  mind,  by  which  alone  they  are  com- 
prehended ;a  so  that  when  this  light  is  not  found  instruction  is  as 
useless  as  wishing  to  show  pictures  during  the  night. 

The  greatest  minds  have  but  a  limited  capacity,  and  have 
always  some  dark  and  shady  places  in  it;  but  children's  minds 
are  almost  alway£  full  of  darkness,  and  only  catch  a  glimpse  of 
small  rays  of  light.  Thus  everything  consists  in  making  the  most 
of  these  rays,  in  augmenting  them,  and  exposing  to  them  what 
we  wish  to  be  understood. 

For  this  reason  it  is  difficult  to  give  general  rules  for  the 
instruction  of  anyone  whatever,  because  it  is  necessary  to  adapt 
it  to  this  mixture  of  light  and  shade  which  is  different  in  different 
minds,  and  especially  in  children.  "We  must  seek  the  light  and 
bring  to  it  what  we  wish  to  be  understood,  and  for  that  we  must 
often  try  different  ways  to  enter  into  their  minds  and  fix  upon 
those  which  succeed  the  best. 

We  may,  nevertheless,  say  generally  that  as  the  intelligence  of 
children  depends  very  much  on  the  senses,  instruction  must,  as 
far  as  possible,  be  given  through  the  senses,  and  be  made  to  enter, 
not  through  the  mind  alone,  but  through  the  eye,2  there  being  no 
other  sense  that  makes  a  more  vivid  impression  on  the  mind  and 
forms  more  clear  and  distinct  ideas. 

From  these  observations  it  may  be  inferred  that  geography8  is 
a  very  suitable  study  for  children,  because  it  depends  very  much 

1  An  accurate  and  profound  idea,  in  the  development  of  which  Nicole  gives 
a  proof  of  great  acuteness  in  analysis. 

2  An  excellent  recommendation  still  to  be  insisted  on.     Two  gates  permit 
access  to  the  child's  intelligence,   hearing  and  sight.     Why  do  so  many 
teachers  fail  to  think  of  opening  them  both  ?     It  should  be  a  main  point  in 
the  preparation  of  lessons  to  exercise  ingenuity  in  procuring  or  fabricating 
everything  that  might  render  the  objects  of  the  lesson  visible  to  the  eyes.^ 

3  The  object  lesson,  still  more  than  geography,  lends  itself  to  this  teaching 
through  the  sight.     A  great  number  of  objects  may  be  shown  and  handled, 
for  others  we  must  be  content  with  pictures. 


Nicole:   Education  of  a  Prince.  173 

on  the  senses,  and  through  them  are  shown  the  situations  of  towns 
and  provinces,  and  in  addition  it  is  very  entertaining,  which  is 
also  necessary  in  order  not  to  repel  them  at  first,  and  has  little 
need  of  reasoning,  which  they  lack  most  at  that  age. 

But  to  render  this  study  more  useful  and  pleasant  at  the  same 
time  it  is  not  sufficient  to  point  out  the  names  of  towns  and 
provinces  on  a  map,  many  artifices  must  be  used  to  aid  them 
to  remember  them. 

Books  may  be  had  in  which  there  are  paintings  of  the  largest 
towns,1  and  may  be  shown  to  them.  Children  like  this  sort  of 
amusement.  They  may  be  told  some  remarkable  story  about  the 
principal  towns  to  fix  them  in  their  memory,  battles  which  have 
been  fought  there,  councils  which  have  been  held  in  them,  or 
great  men  who  have  come  from  them  may  be  noted,  and  something 
may  be  said  upon  their  natural  history  if  there  is  anything  remark- 
able, or  on  the  government,  size,  and  trade  of  these  towns.  .  .  . 

To  this  special  study  of  geography  should  be  joined  a  small 
exercise  which  is  only  an  amusement,  but  which  does  not  fail 
to  contribute  much  to  fix  it  in  their  minds.  If  some  story  is  told 
them,  its  place  should  always  be  pointed  out  to  them  on  the  map. 
If,  for  instance,  the  Gazette  is  read,  all  the  towns  named  should  be 
pointed  out  on  the  map.  In  fine,  they  should  mark  on  their  maps 
every  place  they  hear  spoken  of,  that  they  may  serve  them  as  an 
artificial  memory  to  retain  the  stories,  and  the  stories  should  help 
them  to  remember  the  places  where  they  happened. 

There  are  several  other  useful  subjects  besides  geography  that 
may  enter  children's  minds  through  their  eyes. 

The  machines  of  the  Komans,  their  punishments,  dress,  arms, 
and  several  other  things  of  the  same  kind  are  represented  in  the 
books  of  Lipsius,  and  may  be  usefully  shown  to  children ; 2  they 
may  be  shown,  for  instance,  what  a  battering-ram  was,  how  they 
made  a  testudo,  how  the  Roman  armies  were  organized,  the 
number  of  their  cohorts  and  legions,  their  officers,  and  a  number 

1  We  may  add  views  of  mountains,  of  the  courses  of  rivers,  and  of  other 
geographical  prospects-.     The  pictures  of  M.  Felix  Hement  are  a  beginning 
of  the  application  of  this  mode  of  teaching  through  the  eye. 

2  Our  editors  have  not  failed  to  put  in  practice  these  sensible  hints,  and 
our  children  have  in  their  hands  books  usefully  illustrated  for  the  study  of 
natural  history,  geography,  and  common  subjects,  &c. 


174  Port- Royal  Education. 

of  other  pleasing  and  curious  things,  omitting  those  that  are  more 
intricate.  Very  nearly  the  same  advantage  may  be  drawn  from  a 
book  entitled  Roma  Subterranea,  and  others  in  which  have  been 
engraved  what  remains  of  the  antiquities  of  this  chief  city  of  the 
world,  to  which  may  be  added  the  plates  that  are  found  in  certain 
voyages  to  India  and  China,  in  which  the  sacrifices  and  pagodas 
of  these  wretched  people  are  described,  pointing  out  to  them  at 
the  same  time  to  what  excess  of  folly  men  are  capable  of  going 
when  they  follow  only  their  own  imagination  and  the  light  of 
their  own  minds. 

The  book  of  Aldrovandus,1  or  rather  the  abridgment  of  it  made 
by  Jonston,  may  also  usefully  serve  to  amuse  them,  provided  that 
he  who  shows  it  to  them  has  taken  pains  to  learn  something  of 
the  nature  of  animals,  and  to  tell  it  to  them  not  as  a  formal  lesson 
but  in  conversation.  This  book  may  also  be  used  to  show  them 
the  pictures  of  the  animals  they  hear  spoken  of  either  in  books 
or  conversation. 

An  intelligent  man  has  shown,  at  the  present  time,  by  a  trial  that 
he  made  on  one  of  his  children,  that  at  that  age  they  are  quite  capable 
of  learning  anatomy ;  and  no  doubt  they  might  be  usefully  taught 
some  general  principles,  if  it  were  only  to  make  them  retain  the 
Latin  names  of  the  parts  of  the  human  body,2  avoiding,  however, 
certain  objectionable  points  on  this  matter. 

It  is  useful,  for  the  same  reason,  to  show  them  the  portraits  of 
the  kings  of  France,  the  Koman  emperors,  the  sultans,  the  great 
captains  and  illustrious  men  of  various  nations.  It  is  good  that 
they  should  amuse  themselves  by  looking  at  them,  and  refer  to 
them  whenever  they  are  spoken  of  in  their  presence,  for  all  this 
serves  to  fix  the  ideas  in  their  memories. 

Teachers  should  try  and  cultivate  a  healthy  curiosity  in  the 
children  to  see  strange  and  curious  things,  and  lead  them  to 
enquire  the  reasons  of  everything.  This  curiosity  is  not  a  vice 

1  Aldrovandus,  of  Bologna  (1520-1605),  the  author  of  a  large  Natural 
History,  comprising  no  less  than  13  vols.  in  folio.     We  have  nothing  to 
learn  now  from  this  immense  and  undigested  compilation,  in  which  poetry, 
legends,  and  popular  prejudices  hold  a  larger  place  than  real  observation. 

2  This  is  a  very  secondary  consideration  in  comparison  with  the  advantage 
we  might  draw  from  it  for  the  teaching  of  hygiene  and  gymnastics  ;  but 
then  they  were  more  taken  up  with  writing  and  even  speaking  Latin. 


Nicole:   Education  of  a  Prince.  175 

at  their  age,  since  it  serves  to  open  their  minds,  and  may  divert 
them  from  some  irregularities. 

History  may  be  placed  among  the  acquirements  that  are  gained 
through  the  eyes,  since  various  books  of  pictures  and  figures  may 
be  used  to  help  them  to  remember  it.  But  even  if  none  should 
be  found,  it  is  in  itself  very  suitable  to  children's  minds.  And 
though  it  only  exercises  the  memory,  it  is  very  useful  in  forming 
the  judgment.  Every  artifice,  then,  should  be  used  to  give  them 
a  taste  for  it. 

At  first  they  may  be  given  a  general  idea  of  universal  history, 
of  the  various  monarchies,  and  the  principal  changes  that  have 
taken  place  since  the  beginning  of  the  world,  by  dividing  the 
course  of  time  into  different  ages;  as,  from  the  creation  to  the 
deluge,  from  the  deluge  to  Abraham,  from  Abraham  to  Moses, 
from  Moses  to  Solomon,  from  Solomon  to  the  return  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  from  the  return  from  captivity  to  Christ, 
from  Christ  to  our  own  times,  thus  joining  general  chronology 
to  general  history.1  .  .  . 

Besides  these  histories,  which  will  form  part  of  their  studies  and 
occupations,  it  would  be  of  advantage  to  relate  to  them  every  day 
a  detached  episode,  which  would  have  no  place  in  their  regular 
exercises,  but  would  rather  serve  to  amuse  them.  It  might  be 
called  the  story  of  the  day,  and  they  might  be  practised  in  reciting 
it  in  order  to  teach  them  to  converse. 

This  story  should  contain  some  great  event,  some  extraordinary 
meeting,  some  striking  example  of  vice,  virtue,  misfortune, 

1  The  present  programmes  of  secondary  classical  instruction  (decree  of 
2  Aug.,  1880)  are  inspired  by  more  correct  ideas  ;  in  the  eighth  class  (the 
lowest),  History  of  France  to  Henri  IV.  ;  seventh,  from  Henri  IV.  to  the 
present  time  ;  sixth,  History  of  the  East ;  fifth,  History  of  Ancient  Greece  ; 
fourth,  Roman  History  ;  third,  History  of  Europe,  and  especially  of  France, 
from  395  to  1270  ;  second,  from  1270  to  1610 ;  in  the  class  of  rhetoric  (first), 
from  1610  to  1789  ;  and  in  the  class  of  philosophy,  Contemporary  History 
from  1789  to  1875. 

They  have  been  less  successful  for  primary  instruction,  where  the  short 
time  allowed  for  studies  has  compelled  too  great  a  condensation  in  the  upper 
forms.  Where  are  the  teachers  to  be  found  who  are  able  to  give  properly,  in 
a  year,  notions  on  ancient  history,  Greek  and  Roman,  the  History  of  Europe 
and  of  France  to  1875  ?  I  regret,  for  my  part,  the  old  programme,  which 
made  the  pupils  in  the  three  courses  review  the  History  of  France  with  new 
developments. 


176  Port-Royal  Education. 

prosperity,  or  singularity.  It  might  include  uncommon  incidents, 
prodigies,  earthquakes,  which  have  sometimes  engulphed  entire 
cities,  shipwrecks,  battles,  and  foreign  laws  and  customs.  By 
making  the  most  of  this  practice  they  might  be  taught  what 
is  finest  in  all  histories ;  but,  for  that,  it  is  necessary  to  be  regular, 
and  not  to  pass  a  day  without  relating  a  story  and  referring  every 
day  to  what  has  been  told  them  before. 

They  should  be  taught  to  connect  in  their  memory  similar 
stories  that  one  may  serve  to  recall  another.  For  example,  it  is 
proper  for  them  to  know  some  examples  of  all  the  greatest  armies 
that  are  spoken  of  in  books,  of  great  battles  and  slaughters,  of 
great  cruelties,  of  great  pestilences,  of  great  prosperity  and 
adversity,  of  great  riches,  of  great  conquerors  and  captains,  of 
fortunate  and  unfortunate  favourites,  of  the  longest  lives,  of  the 
signal  follies  of  men,  of  great  vices  and  great  virtues.1  .  .  . 

The  idea  of  those  who  will  have  no  grammar  2  is  only  the  idea 
of  idle  persons  who  wish  to  spare  themselves  the  trouble  of 
teaching  it ;  but,  far  from  relieving  the  children,  it  burdens  them 
much  more  than  the  rules,  since  it  deprives  them  of  know- 
ledge that  would  facilitate  the  understanding  of  the  books,  and 
obliges  them  to  learn  a  hundred  times  what  it  would  have  sufficed 
to  learn  only  once. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  book  Janua  Unguarum  3  may  have 
some  utility ;  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  irksome  to  load  the  memory 
of  children  with  a  book  in  which  there  are  only  words  to  be 
learnt,  since  one  of  the  most  useful  rules  that  can  be  followed  in 
their  instruction  is  to  join  several  useful  things,  and  to  act  so  that 
the  books  they  read  in  order  to  learn  the  language  may  also  be  of 
use  to  form  their  mind,  judgment,  and  morals,  to  which  this  book 
cannot  contribute.  .  .  . 

It  is  a  general  opinion,  and  one  of  great  importance  to  teachers, 
that  they  should  have  in  their  mind  all  that  they  should  teach 

1  Add  to  this  list  the  much  more  important  history  of  great  inventions 
and  discoveries.     Nicole  would  have  heartily  approved  of  the  creation  of  the 
BiUiotheque  des  merveilles,  whose  plan,  happily  enlarged,  responds  to  his 
indications. 

2  Nicole  is  here  concerned  with  teaching  Latin.    His  observations  are  none 
the  less  accurate  and  useful. 

3  See  Lancelot's  opinion  on  the  book  of  Comenius.  (Introduction,  p.  15.) 


Nicole :   Education  of  a  Prince.  177 

the  children,  and  not  be  satisfied  with  simply  finding  it  in  their 
memory  when  it  is  recalled  to  them.  For  we  find  many  favour- 
able opportunities  of  teaching  children  what  we  know  well,  and 
make  them  when  we  will,  and  adapt  ourselves  better  to  their 
capacity  when  the  mind  makes  no  effort  to  find  what  ought 
to  be  read.  .  .  . 

Children  should  never  be  allowed  to  learn  by  heart  anything 
that  is  not  excellent.  For  this  reason  it  is  a  very  bad  method  to 
make  them  learn  whole  books  by  heart,  because  everything  is  not 
equally  good  in  books.  .  .  . 

This  opinion  is  more  important  than  is  thought ;  its  aim  is  not 
only  to  relieve  the  memory  of  children,  but  also  to  form  their 
mind  and  their  style ;  for  things  that  are  learnt  by  heart  impress 
themselves  deeper  on  the  memory,  and  are  like  moulds  and  forms 
that  the  thoughts  take  when  they  wish  to  express  them ;  so  that 
if  they  only  have  good  and  excellent  ones,  they  must  necessarily 
express  themselves  in  a  noble  and  elevated  manner. 

With  respect  to  the  study  of  rhetoric,  Nicole  makes  this  remark: — 

All  those  names  of  figures,  all  those  subjects  of  arguments,  all 
those  enthymemes  and  epicheremes  will  never  be  of  use  to  any- 
body )  and  if  they  are  taught  to  children,  they  should  at  least 
be  taught  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  very  useless  things.1 

Everything  in  the  instruction  of  the  elder  scholars  -should 
be  referred  to  ethics,  and  it  is  easy  to  apply  this  rule  to  what  they 
should  be  taught  in  rhetoric ;  for  true  rhetoric  is  founded  to  true 
ethics,  since  it  should  always  leave  a  pleasing  impression  of  the 
speaker  and  make  him  pass  for  an  honest  man,  which  presupposes 
that  we  know  what  honesty  is,  and  which  makes  us  liked.  We 
are  speaking  badly  if  we  make  ourselves  disliked  or  despised 
by  speaking.  And  this  rule  obliges  us  to  avoid  all  that  savours  of 
vanity,  levity,  malignity,  baseness,  brutality,  or  effrontery,  and 
generally  everything  that  gives  an  idea  of  any  vice  or  defect 
of  mind. 


1  It  would  be  a  signal  service  to  the  art  of  teaching  to  impress  this  upon 
the  masters  and  mistresses  of  our  normal  schools,  who  are  still  too  much  in 
bondage  to  this  old  rhetoric.  All  these  Greek  names,  that  the  children 
so  easily  mispronounce,  teach  them  nothing  really  useful.  The  secrets  of  the 
art  of  writing  should  be  taught  by  the  explanation  of  good  authors. 

N 


Port-Royal  Education. 


There  is,  for  example,  in  Pliny  the  Younger,  an  air  of  vanity 
and  a  sensitive  love  of  reputation  which  spoil  his  letters,  kowever 
full  of  wit  they  may  be,  and  give  them  a  bad  style,  because  we 
can  only  imagine  him  as  a  vain  and  superficial  man.  The  same 
defect  makes  the  person  of  Cicero  despicable  at  the  same  time 
that  we  admire  his  eloquence,  because  this  air  appears  in  almost 
all  his  works.1  No  man  of  honour  would  wish  to  resemble 
Horace  or  Martial  in  their  malignity  and  impudence.  Now, 
to  give  these  ideas  of  oneself  is  to  offend  against  true  rhetoric  as 
well  as  against  true  morality. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  beauty  in  eloquence  of  which  we  should 
endeavour  to  render  children  sensible.  One  consists  of  good  and 
solid,  but  extraordinary  and  surprising  thoughts.  Lucan,  Seneca, 
and  Tacitus  are  full  of  this  kind  of  beauties. 

The  other,  on  the  contrary,  does  not  at  all  consist  in  rare 
thoughts,  but  in  a  certain  natural  air,  an  easy,  elegant,  and 
delicate  simplicity,  which  does  not  strain  the  mind,  which  only 
presents  to  it  common,  but  lively  and  pleasing  images,  and 
which  can  follow  it  in  its  movements  so  well,  that  it  never  fails  to 
put  before  it,  on  every  subject,  objects  by  which  it  may  be 
touched,  and  to  express  all  the  passions  and  emotions  that  the 
things  it  represents  ought  to  produce  on  it.  This  is  the  beauty 
of  Terence  and  Virgil.  And  we  see  by  this  that  it  is  still  more 
difficult  than  the  other,  since  there  are  no  authors  who  have  been 
less  nearly  approached  than  these  two. 

It  is  this  beauty,  however,  that  causes  the  pleasure  and  charm 

1  M.  Legouve  has  warmly  taken  up  the  defence  of  Cicero  in  his  eloquent 
reply  to  the  address  of  reception  of  M.  G.  Boissier  :  "One  day  the  Emperor 
Augustus  surprised  his  grandson  reading  a  book  that  he  made  haste  to  hide  ; 
the  Emperor  took  the  volume,  it  was  a  work  of  Cicero.  After  having  read  a 
few  lines  he  returned  it  to  the  child,  and  added  in  an  agitated  voice,  in  which 
perhaps  there  was  some  remorse  :  '  My  son,  that  man  deeply  loved  his 
country  !  ;  This  was  Cicero's  dominant  trait,  this  effaces  all  his  faults, 
this  nourishes  and  immortalises  his  genius.  .  .  What  matters  that  this 
great  man  had  some  small  weaknesses,  some  passing  vanity  ?  As  soon 
as  the  interest  of  Rome  appeared,  vanity,  fears,  hesitation,  all  disappeared  ; 
he  saw  but  one  thing,  his  country  ;  he  had  but  one  aim,  the  safety  of  Rome, 
and  he  went  straight,  not  only  to  duty,  but  to  heroism,  so  that  it  may  be  said 
that  in  those  terrible  civil  commotions  he  had  many  small  fears  and  great 
courage.  .  .  Ah  !  believe  me,  sir,  when  we  meet  with  such  men  in  history  we 
must  not  diminish  their  greatness  by  their  weaknesses,  but  sink  their  weak- 
nesses in  their  greatness  !  "  (Academic  franchise,  seance  du  21  dec.,  1876.) 


Nicole:   Education  of  a  Prince,  179 

of  polite  conversation ;  and  thus  it  is  more  important  to  make  it 
appreciated  by  those  whom  we  instruct  than  that  other  beauty  of 
thoughts,  which  is  much  less  in  use. 

If  we  do  not  know  how  to  mingle  this  natural  and  simple 
beauty  with  that  of  great  thoughts,  we  run  the  risk  of  writing 
and  speaking  badly  in  proportion  to  our  endeavour  to  write 
and  speak  well;  and  the  more  intelligence  we  have  the  more 
we  fall  into  this  vicious  style.  For  this  throws  us  into  the 
antithetic  style,  which  is  a  very  bad  one.  Even  if  thoughts 
are  good  and  solid  in  themselves,  they  nevertheless  weary  and 
overwhelm  the  mind  if  they  are  in  too  great  numbers,  and 
if  they  are  employed  on  subjects  which  do  not  require  them. 
Seneca,  who  is  admirable  when  taken  in  parts,  wearies  the  mind 
when  read  consecutively,  and  I  think  that  if  Quintilian  rightly 
said  of  him  that  he  was  full  of  agreeable  defects,  we  may 
say  with  as  much  reason  that  he  is  full  of  disagreeable  beauties — 
disagreeable  by  their  number  and  by  the  design  that  he  appears  to 
have  had  of  saying  nothing  simply,  but  putting  everything  in 
antithetical  form.  There  is  no  fault  that  it  is  more  necessary 
to  point  out  to  children  when  they  are  a  little  advanced  than 
that,  because  there  is  none  which  more  destroys  the  fruit  of 
studies  in  what  regards  language  and  eloquence. 

Everything  should  tend  to  form  the  judgment  of  the  children, 
and  impress  on  their  minds  and  hearts  the  rules  of  true  morality. 
Every  occasion  should  be  taken  to  teach  it  to  them;  but, 
nevertheless,  certain  exercises  may  be  practised  which  tend  to 
it  more  directly.  And,  firstly,  we  must  endeavour  to  confirm 
them  in  the  faith,  and  strengthen  them  against  the  maxims  of 
free-thinking  and  impiety,  which  spread  only  too  much  in 
courts.  .  .  . 

A  book  has  just  been  published  which  may  be  one  of  the  most 
useful  that  can  be  put  into  the  hands  of  intelligent  princes.  It  is 
the  collection  of  Pensees  of  M.  Pascal.  In  addition  to  the  incom- 
parable advantage  that  may  be  drawn  from  it  to  confirm  them  in 
the  true  religion  by  reasons  which  will  appear  to  them  so  much 
the  more  solid  the  deeper  they  go  into  them,  and  which  leave  this 
most  useful  impression  that  nothing  is  more  ridiculous  than 
to  make  a  boast  of  free-thinking  and  irreligion,  a  thing  that 


i8o  Port-Royal  Education. 

is  more  important  than  can  be  believed  for  the  great,  there  is, 
besides,  an  air  so  grand,  so  elevated,  and  at  the  same  time  so 
simple  and  so  far  removed  from  affectation  in  everything  that  he 
writes,  that  nothing  is  fitter  to  form  their  minds  and  to  give  them 
the  taste  for  and  the  idea  of  a  noble  and  natural  manner  of 
writing  and  speaking.1  .  .  . 

Saint  Basil  advises  to  teach  children  sentences  taken  from  the 
Proverbs  and  the  other  books  of  Solomon,  to  sanctify  their 
memory  by  the  word  of  God,  and  to  instruct  them  in  the 
principles  of  morality.  .  .  . 

To  these  sentences  from  the  Proverbs  might  be  added  others 
drawn  from  pagan  authors,  setting  them  to  learn  only  one  a  day.2 
This  practice  would  suffice  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  to  make 
them  retain  the  finest  thoughts  of  the  poets,  historians,  and 
philosophers,  and  would  even  give  an  opportunity  by  choosing 
some  suitable  to  their  faults,  which  would  serve  to  point  them  out 
and  set  them  before  their  eyes  in  a  gentle  and  less  unpleasant 
manner. 

It  would  be  too  severe  to  absolutely  forbid  the  children  to  use 
pagan  books,  since  they  contain  a  great  number  of  useful  things ; 
but  the  teacher  should  know  how  to  render  them  Christian  by  the 
manner  in  which  he  explains  them.  There  are  very  true  maxims 
in  these  books,  and  these  are  Christian  in  themselves,  since  all 
truth  comes  from  God  and  appertains  to  God  ! 3  It  remains,  then, 
either  to  approve  of  them  simply,  or  to  show  that  the  Christian 
religion  carries  them  farther,  and  makes  the  truth  penetrate  them 
deeper.  There  are  others  that  are  false  in  the  mouth  of  pagans, 


1  Nicole  no  longer  holds  this  language  in  his  strange  letter  on  the  subject 
of  the  Pensees  of  Pascal.  (See  Introduction,  p.  24. ) 

2  Seneca,  in  his  Letters  to  Lucilius,  recommends  his  friend  to  gather  in  his 
reading  a  maxim  and  to  make  of  it  "the  food  for  the  day."    The  suggestion 
of  Nicole  is  excellent,  and  deserves  to  be  taken  into  consideration.    Teachers 
would  find  it  a  wonderful  help  in  teaching  morality. 

3  These  broader  and  sounder  views  soften   what  Nicole,   led  away  by 
an  unreasoning  piety,   has  said  elsewhere  of  pagan  literature,   in  which 
he  sees    only    the  inspiration   of    the    devil.    (See   Introduction,    p.    23.) 
Minucius  Felix  says  in  his  Octavius:  "It  seems  to  me  that  at  times  the 
ancient  philosophers  agree  so  well  with  the  Christians,  that  it  might  be  said, 
either  that   the   present   Christians  are   philosophers,   or   that  the   former 
philosophers  were  Christians. 


Nicole:    On  Preserving  Peace  with  Men.         181 

but  very  sound  and  true  in  that  of  Christians.1  And  this  is  what] 
a  teacher  should  distinguish,  by  pointing  out  the  hollowness  of  the! 
pagan  philosophy  and  opposing  to  it  the  solidity  of  the  principles! 
of  Christianity. 

In  fine,  there  are  some  absolutely  false,  and  he  must  show  their 
falseness  by  clear  and  solid  reasons.  By  this  means  everything  in 
these  books  will  be  useful,  and  they  will  become  books  of  piety,2 
since  the  very  errors  they  contain  will  be  used  to  make  known  the 
truths  which  are  contrary  to  them.  .  .  . 

(Nicole,  Traite  de  V education  d'un  prince.) 


OF  THE  MEANS  OF  PRESERVING  PEACE  WITH  MEN. 

.  .  .  This  agreement  of  faith  and  reason  appears  nowhere  so 
well  as  in  the  duty  of  preserving  peace  with  those  who  are  united 
with  us,  and  of  avoiding  all  occasions  to  disturb  it.  And  if 
religion  prescribes  this  to  us  as  one  of  the  most  essential  duties  of 
Christian  piety,  reason  leads  us  to  it  also  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant for  our  own  interest. 

For  we  cannot  consider  with  any  attention  the  source  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  disquiet  and  opposition  from  which  we  suffer, 
or  from  which  we  see  others  suffer,  without  recognizing  that  they 
usually  come  from  the  fact  that  we  do  not  sufficiently  give  way  to 
each  other.  And  if  we  will  do  justice  to  ourselves,  we  shall  find 
that  we  are  seldom  spoken  ill  of  without  reason,  or  that  men  take 
pleasure  in  hurting  and  offending  us  for  their  amusement;  we 
always  contribute  something  to  it.  If  there  are  no  approximate 
causes  there  are  distant  ones.  And  we  fall  unconsciously  into 
a  number  of  small  faults,  with  respect  to  those  with  whom  we 
live,  which  dispose  them  to  take  in  bad  part  what  they  would 

1  A  singular  and  inadmissible  assertion  !     Truth  is  truth.     What  differ- 
ence, for  example,  can  be  found,  without  the  spirit  of  system,  between  these 
words  of  Plato,  "There  is  no  other  means  of  making  ourselves  loved  by 
God  than  to  labour  with  all  our  strength  to  resemble  Him  "  (Lois,  liv.  iv.), 
and  this  precept  of  Christ,   "Be  ye  perfect,  as  your  Father  in  heaven  is 
perfect "  ?  (See  the  conscientious  work  of  M.  EM.  HAVET,  Le  christianisme  et 
ses  origines. ) 

2  These  books,  which  he  denounced  as  the  works  of  the  devil,  are  here  re- 
habilitated. (See  Introduction,  p.  23.) 


1 82  Port- Royal  Education. 

suffer  without  any  trouble  if  they  had  not  already  the  beginning 
of  bitterness  in  their  mind.  In  fine,  it  is  almost  always  true  that,  if 
men  do  not  love  us,  it  is  because  we  cannot  make  ourselves  loved. 

We  contribute,  then,  ourselves  to  this  disquiet  and  opposition, 
and  to  these  troubles  that  others  cause  us ;  and  as  it  is  partly  this 
that  renders  us  unhappy,  nothing  is  more  important  for  us,  even 
from  a  worldly  point  of  view,  than  to  set  ourselves  to  avoid  them. 
And  the  science  that  teaches  us  to  do  this  is  a  thousand  times 
more  useful  than  all  those  that  men  learn  with  so  much  pains  and 
time.  There  is  reason,  therefore,  to  deplore  the  bad  choice 
that  men  make  in  the  study  of  arts,  exercises,  and  sciences.  They 
take  great  pains  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  matter,  and  to  find  the 
means  of  making  it  useful  for  their  needs.  They  learn  the  art  of 
taming  animals  and  employing  them  in  the  labours  of  daily  life, 
and  do  not  give  a  thought  to  that  of  making  men  useful  to  them, 
and  preventing  them  troubling  them  and  rendering  their  lives  un- 
happy, although  men  contribute  infinitely  more  to  their  happiness 
or  unhappiness  than  all  the  other  creatures.  .  .  . 

Charity  not  only  includes  all  men,  but  includes  them  at  all  times. 
Thus  we  should  have  peace  with  all  men  and  at  all  times,  for  there 
is  no  time  in  which  we  ought  not  to  love  them  and  desire  to  serve 
them ;  and,  consequently,  there  is  none  in  which  we  should  not, 
for  our  part,  remove  all  the  obstacles  that  we  may  meet  with,  of 
which  the  greatest  is  the  aversion  and  coolness  that  they  may  feel 
towards  us.  So  that,  even  when  we  cannot  preserve  with  them  an 
interior  peace,  which  consists  in  unity  of  sentiments,  we  should 
endeavour  to  preserve  an  exterior  peace,  which  consists  in  the 
duties  of  human  civility,  in  order  not  to  make  ourselves  incapable 
of  serving  them  some  day,  and  to  bear  witness  before  God  of  our 
sincere  desire  to  do  so. 

Besides,  if  we  do  not  actually  serve  them,  we  are  obliged,  at 
least,  not  to  hurt  them.  Now  leading  them  to  become  cool 
towards  us  by  offending  them  is  hurting  them.  It  is  doing  them 
a  real  harm  to  dispose  them  by  the  coolness  they  conceive  towards 
us  to  take  our  actions  and  words  in  bad  part,  to  speak  of  them  in  an 
unjust  manner  which  would  hurt  their  conscience  and,  in  fine,  to 
despise  even  the  truth  from  our  mouth,  and  not  to  love  justice 
when  it  is  we  who  defend  it. 


Nicole:    On  Preserving  Peace  with  Men.         183 

It  is,  then,  not  only  the  interest  of  men,  but  also  that  of  truth 
itself,  which  obliges  us  not  to  embitter  them  needlessly  against  us. 
If  we  love  it,  we  should  avoid  making  it  odious  by  our  impru- 
dence, and  closing  its  entrance  into  the  heart  and  mind  of  men  by 
closing'it  to  ourselves;  and  thus,  to  lead  us  to  avoid  this  defect  the 
Scripture  warns  us,  that  wise  men  adorn  knowledge,  that  is  to  say, 
render  it  venerable  to  men,  and  that  the  esteem  that  they  attract  by 
their  moderation  makes  the  truth  which  they  announce  appear 
more  august ;  whereas  by  making  ourselves  despised  or  hated  by 
men  we  dishonour  it,  because  contempt  and  hatred  usually  pass 
from  the  person  to  the  teaching.  .  .  . 

The  trouble  does  not  lie  in  convincing  ourselves  of  the  necessity 
of  preserving  union  with  our  neighbour,  it  is  really  to  preserve  it 
by  avoiding  all  that  can  disturb  it,  and  it  is  certain  that  a  large 
charity  alone  can  produce  the  grand  effect.  But,  among  the 
human  means  that  it  is  useful  to  employ,  it  seems  there  is  none 
more  fitting  than  to  endeavour  to  learn  the  usual  causes  of  the 
divisions  that  take  place  among  men,  in  order  to  be  able  to 
prevent  them.  Now,  considering  them  in  general,  we  may  say 
that  we  only  fall  out  with  men  because  in  offending  them  we  lead 
them  to  hold  themselves  aloof  from  us ;  or  because  being  offended 
by  their  actions  or  words  we  ourselves  keep  away  from  them,  and 
give  up  their  friendship.  Both  may  happen  either  by  open 
rupture,  or  by  gradually  increasing  coolness ;  but  however  it  may 
happen,  it  is  always  these  reciprocal  discontents  which  cause 
divisions ;  and  the  sole  means  of  avoiding  them  is  never  to  do 
anything  that  may  offend  another,  and  never  to  be  offended  by 
anything  ourselves. 

Nothing  is  easier  than  to  prescribe  this  generally.  But  there  are 
few  things  more  difficult  to  practise  in  particular ;  and  we  may  say 
that  here  is  one  of  those  rules  which,  being  short  in  words,  are 
very  general  in  sense,  and  include  in  their  generality  a  great 
number  of  very  important  duties.  For  this  reason  it  will  be 
profitable  to  develop  it  by  examining  more  particularly  by  what 
means  we  may  avoid  offending  men,  and  may  put  our  own  minds 
in  a  condition  not  to  be  offended  by  what  they  may  do  or  say 
against  us. 

The  means  of  succeeding  in  the  practice  of  the  first  of  these 


184  Porl-Royal  Education. 

duties  is  to  learn  what  it  is  that  offends  them,  and  causes  aversion 
and  coolness.  Now  it  seems  that  all  these  causes  may  be  reduced 
to  two,  namely,  contradicting  their  opinions  and  opposing  their 
passions.  .  .  . 

Men  are  naturally  attached  to  their  opinions,  because  they 
always  have  some  desire  to  rule  over  others  in  every  possible 
manner.  Now  we  rule  in  a  certain  way  by  our  reputation ;  for 
it  is  a  kind  of  authority  to  make  others  receive  our  opinions. 
And  thus  the  opposition  we  meet  with  wounds  us  in  proportion 
as  we  are  fond  of  this  sort  of  domination.  Man  puts  his  joy, 
says  the  Scripture,  in  the  thoughts  that  he  sets  forth.  For  in 
setting  them  forth  he  makes  them  his  own,  he  makes  them 
his  goods,  he  clings  to  them  by  interest;  to  destroy  them  is  to 
destroy  something  belonging  to  him.  It  cannot  be  done  without 
showing  him  that  he  is  mistaken,  and  a  man  has  no  pleasure  in 
being  mistaken.  He  who  contradicts  another  on  any  point  claims 
to  have  more  knowledge  of  it  than  he  has.  And  thus  two  dis- 
agreeable ideas  are  presented  to  him  at  once — one,  that  he  fails 
in  knowledge ;  the  other,  that  he  who  corrects  him  surpasses 
him  in  intelligence.  The  first  humiliates  him,  the  second  arouses 
his  jealousy.  These  impressions  are  more  deep  and  clear  as  the 
desire  to  rule  is  more  lively  and  active ;  but  there  are  few  persons 
who  do  not  feel  them  in  some  degree,  or  who  submit  to  contradic- 
tion without  some  displeasure. 

Besides  this  general  cause,  there  are  several  others  which  make 
men  cling  to  their  ideas,  or  make  them  more  sensitive  to  con- 
tradiction. Although  it  may  appear  that  piety,  by  diminishing 
the  esteem  we  may  have  for  ourselves,  and  the  desire  to  dominate 
over  the  minds  of  others,  ought  to  diminish  our  attachment  to 
our  own  opinions,  it  often  has  the  contrary  effect.  For  as 
spiritual  persons1  look  at  all  things  from  a  spiritual  point  of 
view,  and  yet  are  sometimes  deceived,  sometimes  also  they 
spiritualize  certain  falsehoods,  and  support  some  unsettled  or 
ill-founded  opinions  with  conscientious  reasons,  which  cause  them 
to  cling  to  them  with  obstinacy.  So  that,  applying  their  general 
love  of  truth,  virtue,  and  the  interests  of  God  to  those  opinions 

1  That  is,  those  who  live  a  spiritual  rather  than  a  bodily  life. 


Nicole:    On  Preserving  Peace  with  Men.          185 

which  they  have  not  sufficiently  examined,  their  zeal  is  aroused 
and  inflamed  against  those  who  oppose  them,  or  who  show  that 
they  are  not  persuaded  by  them ;  and  what  remains  of  the  desire 
to  rule,  mingling  and  blending  with  these  impulses  of  zeal,  spreads 
so  much  the  more  freely  as  they  make  less  resistance,  and  do  not 
discriminate  this  double  movement  which  acts  in  their  heart, 
because  their  mind  is  only  perceptibly  occupied  with  these  spiritual 
reasons,  which  appear  to  them  the  sole  source  of  their  zeal.  .  .  . 

The  impatience  which  leads  us  to  contradict  others  with  warmth 
comes  from  the  fact  that  we  find  a  difficulty  in  allowing  others  to 
hold  different  opinions  from  our  own.  These  opinions  offend  us, 
not  because  they  are  contrary  to  truth,  but  because  they  are 
contrary  to  our  feelings.  If  our  aim  were  to  be  of  use  to  those 
whom  we  contradict,  we  should  employ  other  means  and  measures. 
We  only  wish  to  subject  them  to  our  opinions,  and  exalt  our- 
selves above  them ;  or,  rather,  we  wish,  by  contradicting  them, 
to  take  a  small  vengeance  for  the  annoyance  they  have  given 
us  by  offending  our  feelings.  So  that  there  are  altogether  in 
this  proceeding  pride,  which  causes  this  annoyance,  want  of 
charity,  which  leads  us  to  revenge  ourselves  by  an  injudicious 
contradiction,  and  hypocrisy,  which  makes  us  cloak  our  corrupt 
feelings  under  the  pretext  of  love  of  truth,  and  the  charitable 
desire  of  disabusing  others,  whereas,  in  fact,  we  are  only  seeking 
to  gratify  ourselves.  And  thus  what  the  sage  says  may  be  applied 
to  us,  that  the  warnings  that  a  man  who  wishes  to  insult  gives 
are  false  and  deceitful :  Est  correptio  mendax  in  ore  coniumeliosi. 
Not  that  he  always  says  false  things,  but  that,  in  wishing  to  appear 
to  have  the  desire  to  serve  us  by  correcting  us  for  some  fault,  he 
only  has  the  desire  to  displease  and  insult  us. 

We  ought,  then,  to  regard  this  impatience  that  leads  us  to 
oppose  without  discernment  what  appears  to  us  false  as  a  very 
considerable  fault,  which  is  even  greater  than  the  pretended 
error  from  which  we  wish  to  free  others.  Thus,  as  we  owe 
the  first  charity  to  ourselves,  our  first  care  should  be  work 
upon  ourselves,  and  endeavour  to  put  our  mind  into  such  a 
state  as  to  bear  without  emotion  the  opinions  of  others  which 
appear  false  to  us,  in  order  never  to  oppose  them,  but  with  the 
desire  to  be  useful  to  them.  .  .  . 


1 86  Port-Royal  Education. 

We  must  not,  however,  carry  the  principles  which  we  have 
laid  down  so  far  as  to  scruple  generally  in  conversation,  to  show 
that  we  do  not  approve  some  of  the  opinions  of  those  with 
whom  we  live.  This  would  be  destroying  social  intercourse 
instead  of  preserving  it,  because  this  restraint  would  be  too 
great,  and  everyone  would  prefer  to  stay  at  home.  This  reserve, 
then,  should  be  confined  to  the  most  essential  things,  and  to 
those  in  which  we  see  men  take  most  interest;  and  there  are 
methods  of  contradicting  them  by  which  it  would  be  impossible 
for  them  to  be  offended.  And  this  should  be  especially  studied, 
since  public  intercourse  could  not  exist  if  we  had  not  the  liberty 
of  showing  that  we  do  not  hold  the  opinions  of  others. 

Thus  it  is  very  useful  to  carefully  study  how  we  may  express 
our  opinions  in  a  manner  so  gentle,  reserved,  and  agreeable,  that 
no  one  can  be  offended  by  them. 

Men  of  the  world  do  this  admirably  with  respect  to  the  great, 
because  cupidity  makes  them  find  the  means.  And  we  should 
find  them  as  easily  as  they  do  if  charity  were  as  active  in  us  as 
cupidity  is  in  them  .  .  .  and  made  us  as  apprehensive  of  offending 
our  brethren  ...  as  they  are  of  offending  those  whom  they  have 
an  interest  in  making  use  of  to  further  their  fortune. 

This  practice  is  so  important  and  so  necessary  during  the  whole 

course  of  life,  that  special  care  should  be  taken  in  using  it.     For 

i  very  often  it  is  not  so  much  our  opinions  that  offend  others  as 

i  the  haughty,  presumptuous,  passionate,  disdainful,  and  insulting 

I  manner  in  which  we  express  them.     We  should,  then,  learn  to 

'contradict   politely  and   gently,   and  to    consider   the  faults  we 

make  in  this  as  very  considerable. 

It  is  difficult  to  comprise  in  special  rules  and  precepts  the 
various  ways  of  contradicting  the  opinions  of  others  without 
offending  them.  Circumstances  give  rise  to  them,  and  the 
charitable  fear  of  offending  our  brethren  makes  us  find  them. 
But  there  are  certain  common  faults  that  we  should  be  careful 
to  avoid,  and  which  are  the  ordinary  sources  of  this  bad  conduct. 
The  first  is  an  air  of  superiority,  that  is  to  say,  an  imperious 
manner  of  expressing  our  opinions,  that  very  few  people  can 
put  up  with,  as  much  because  it  indicates  a  proud  and  haughty 
spirit,  which  is  naturally  disliked,  as  because  it  seems  that  we 


Nicole:    On  Preserving  Peace  with  Men.          187 

wish  to  dominate  and  make  ourselves  masters  over  the  minds  of 
others.  .  .  . 

For  example,  it  is  a  kind  of  superiority  to  show  displeasure 
that  we  are  not  believed,  and  to  complain  of  it;  for  it  is  like 
accusing  those  to  whom  we  speak  either  of  a  stupidity  that 
prevents  them  understanding  our  reasons,  or  of  an  obstinacy 
which  prevents  their  yielding  to  them.  We  ought  to  be  per- 
suaded, on  the  contrary,  that  those  who  are  not  convinced  by  our 
reasons  will  not  be  shaken  by  our  reproaches,  since  these  re- 
proaches give  them  no  more  information,  and  only  show  that  we 
prefer  our  own  opinion  to  theirs,  and  that  we  are  careless  of 
offending  them. 

Another  great  fault  is  to  speak  with  an  authoritative  air,  as 
if  what  we  say  cannot  reasonably  be  contested;  for  we  offend 
those  to  whom  we  speak  in  this  manner  by  making  them  feel  that 
they  are  opposing  an  indubitable  fact,  or  by  making  it  appear 
that  we  wish  to  deprive  them  of  the  liberty  of  examining  and 
judging  by  their  own  intelligence,  which  appears  to  them  an 
unjust  assumption. 

It  was  to  lead  religious  men  to  avoid  this  offensive  manner 
that  a  saint  advised  them  to  season  their  discourse  with  the  salt 
of  doubt,  as  opposed  to  that  dogmatic  and  authoritative  air: 
Omnis  sermo  vester  dubitationis  sale  sit  conditus,  because  he 
thought  that  humility  did  not  allow  us  to  claim  such  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  truth  as  not  to  leave  room  for  doubt.1 

For  those  who  have  this  peremptory  manner  bear  witness  that 
not  only  they  have  no  doubt  of  what  they  advance,  but  also  that 
they  will  not  have  others  doubt  of  it.  Now  this  is  demanding 
too  much  of  others,  and  claiming  too  much  for  ourselves.  Every 
man  wishes  to  be  the  judge  of  his  own  opinions,  and  only  to 
accept -them  because  he  approves  them.  All  that  these  persons 
gain,  then,  by  this  is  that  men  attach  themselves  more  than  they 
otherwise  would  to  reasons  for  doubting  what  they  say,  because 

1  We  must  not,  however,  on  this  pretext,  adopt  the  ridiculous  position  of 
Marphurius  :  "Seigneur  Sganarelle,  change  this  mode  of  speaking,  if  you 

E  lease.     Our  philosophy  commands  us  not  to  enounce  a  decisive  proposition, 
ut  to  speak  of  everything  with  doubt,  and  always  to  suspend  our  judg- 
ment ;  and  for  this  reason  you  should  not  say  *  I  am  come,  but,  *  It  seems 
to  me  that  I  am  conic.' "  (MoLikiiE,  U  Afariage  force,  act  i.  sc.  8.) 


1 88  Port-Royal  Education. 

this  manner  of  speaking  arouses  a  secret  desire  of  contradicting 
them,  and  of  showing  that  what  they  propose  with  so  much 
assurance  is  not  certain,  or  not  so  certain  as  they  imagine.  .  .  . 

Employing  insulting  and  depreciatory  terms  in  an  argument  is 
so  visible  a  fault  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  refer  to  it.  But  it  is 
proper  to  remark  that  there  is  a  roughness  and  incivility  that 
proceed  from  contempt,  although  they  may  come  from  another 
principle.  It  is  sufficient  to  convince  those  whom  we  oppose  that 
they  are  wrong  and  mistaken,  without  making  them  feel,  by  using 
harsh  and  humiliating  expressions,  that  we  think  they  have  not 
the  least  spark  of  intelligence.  And  the  change  of  opinion  to 
which  we  wish  to  drive  them  is  sufficiently  hard  for  human  nature 
without  adding  new  difficulties  to  it.  These  terms  can  only  be 
useful  in  written  refutations,  in  which  the  design  is  to  convince 
those  who  read  them  of  the  small  intelligence  of  him  who  is 
refuted  rather  than  to  convince  the  man  himself. 

In  fine,  abruptness,  which  does  not  so  much  consist  in  harshness 
of  terms  as  want  of  certain  palliatives,  offends  also,  usually 
because  it  includes  a  species  of  indifference  and  disdain.  For  it 
leaves  the  wound  made  by  the  contradiction  without  any  remedy 
to  diminish  the  pain.  Now  it  is  not  showing  sufficient  regard  for 
men  to  give  them  pain  without  feeling  it  ourselves,  and  without 
endeavouring  to  relieve  it;  and  abruptness  does  not  do  this, 
because,  properly  speaking,  its  essence  consists  in  not  doing  it, 
and  in  saying  harsh  things  harshly.  We  treat  tenderly  those 
whom  we  love  and  esteem,  and  thus  we  openly  testify  to  those 
whom  we  do  not  treat  so,  that  we  have  no  friendship  nor  esteem 
for  them. 

It  is  not  enough  to  avoid  offending  men  in  order  to  preserve 
peace  with  them;  we  must  also  bear  with  them  when  they 
commit  faults  against  us.  For  it  is  impossible  to  preserve 
internal  peace  if  we  are  so  sensitive  to  what  they  may  do  and 
say  contrary  to  our  inclinations  and  feelings;  and  it  is  difficult 
for  the  internal  displeasure  that  we  have  conceived  not  to  break 
out  and  dispose  us  to  act  towards  those  who  have  offended  us 
in  a  manner  capable  of  offending  them  in  their  turn,  and  this 
gradually  increases  the  differences,  and  often  carries  them  to 
extremities. 


Nicole:    On  Preserving  Peace  with  Men.         189 

We  must  endeavour,  then,  to  stop  divisions  and  quarrels  in 
their  very  beginning.  Self-esteem  never  fails  to  suggest  to  us 
on  this  subject  that  the  means  of  succeeding  in  it  would  be 
to  correct  those  who  incommode  us  and  to  bring  them  to  reason, 
showing  them  that  they  are  wrong  in  acting  towards  us  as  they 
do.  This  leads  us  to  complain  of  the  proceedings  of  others  and 
to  notice  their  faults,  either  to  correct  what  displeases  us  in  them, 
or  to  punish  them  by  the  vexation  our  complaints  may  cause  them 
and  the  disapprobation  they  may  draw  upon  them. 

But  if  we  ourselves  were  really  reasonable,  we  should  easily 
see  that  this  design  of  establishing  peace  by  the  reformation  of 
others  is  ridiculous,  because  its  success  is  impossible.  The  more 
we  complain  of  the  proceedings  of  others,  the  more  we  exasperate 
them  against  ourselves  without  correcting  them.  We  cause 
ourselves  to  be  considered  fastidious,  proud,  and  haughty,  and 
the  worst  is  that  this  opinion  will  not  be  altogether  unjust,  since, 
in  fact,  these  complaints  only  proceed  from  fastidiousness  and 
pride.  Those  even  who  show  that  they  accept  our  reasoning, 
and  who  think  that  some  injustice  has  been  done  us,  will  not 
fail  to  be  ill-satisfied  with  our  sensitiveness.  And  as  men  are 
naturally  inclined  to  justify  themselves,  if  those  of  whom  we 
complain  have  a  little  tact,  they  will  turn  things  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  put  us  in  the  wrong ;  for  the  same  defect  of 
narrowness  of  mind  and  want  of  equity  which  attributes  to 
people  the  faults  of  which  we  complain,  prevents  them  also 
very  often  from  acknowledging  them,  and  makes  them  take  as 
true  and  just  all  that  may  serve  to  justify  them. 

For  if  those  of  whom  we  complain  are  higher  than  ourselves 
in  rank,  influence,  or  authority,  the  complaints  that  we  might 
make  would  be  still  more  useless  and  dangerous.  They  can  only 
give  us  the  malignant  and  transitory  satisfaction  of  getting  them 
condemned  by  those  to  whom  we  complain,  and  produce  in  the 
sequel  durable  and  permanent  bad  effects,  by  exasperating  those 
persons  against  us  and  destroying  all  harmony  that  we  might  have 
with  them. 

Prudence,  then,  obliges  us  to  take  the  opposite  road,  to  entirely 
abandon  the  chimerical  design  of  correcting  everything  that  dis- 
pleases us  in  others,  and  to  endeavour  to  found  our  peace  and 


i  go  Port- Royal  Education. 

repose  upon  our  own  proper  reformation  and  on  the  moderation 
of  our  passions.  Neither  the  mind  nor  the  language  of  men  is 
at  our  command,  and  we  are  accountable  for  their  actions  only 
in  so  far  as  we  have  given  occasion  to  them,  but  we  are  account- 
able for  our  own  actions,  words,  and  thoughts.  We  are  charged 
to  watch  over  ourselves  and  correct  our  faults;  and  if  we  do  so 
properly,  nothing  that  comes  from  without  will  be  able  to  trouble 
us.  ... 

It  is  not  sufficient,  in  order  to  preserve  peace  with  ourselves 
and  others,  not  to  offend  anyone,  and  not  to  demand  either  friend- 
ship, esteem,  confidence,  gratitude,  or  civility  from  anyone;  we 
must  have  a  patience  proof  against  all  sorts  of  humours  and 
caprices.  For  as  it  is  impossible  to  make  all  those  with  whom 
we  live  just,  moderate,  and  faultless,  we  must  despair  of  being 
able  to  preserve  tranquillity  of  mind  if  we  confine  it  to  this 
means. 

We  must  expect,  then,  that,  living  with  men,  we  shall  find 
disagreeable  tempers,  people  who  get  angry  without  a  motive, 
who  take  things  amiss,  who  argue,  who  show  a  haughty  superiority 
or  a  base  and  displeasing  complacency ;  some  will  be  too  pas- 
sionate, others  too  cold ;  some  will  contradict  without  any  reason, 
others  will  not  bear  the  least  contradiction  in  anything;  some 
will  be  envious  and  malicious,  others  insolent,  full  of  themselves 
and  without  regard  for  others ;  some  will  be  found  who  think 
that  everything  is  due  to  them,  and  who,  never  thinking  of  how 
they  act  towards  others,  will  not  fail  to  exact  from  them  excessive 
deference. 

What  hope  should  we  have  of  living  quietly  if  all  these  defects 
disturb,  trouble,  and  upset  us,  and  unsettle  our  minds  ? 

We  must,  then,  bear  them  patiently  and  firmly,  if  we  wish  to 
possess  our  souls,  as  the  Scripture  says,  and  prevent  impatience 
making  us  break  out  every  moment,  and  throw  us  into  all  the 
difficulties  that  we  have  spoken  of ;  but  this  patience  is  not  a 
very  common  virtue.  So  that  it  is  very  strange  that,  it  being  on 
the  one  hand  so  difficult  and  so  useful  on  the  other,  we  take  so 
little  pains  to  exercise  ourselves  in  it,  at  the  same  time  that  we 
study  so  many  other  useless  and  unprofitable  things/ 

One  of  the  principal  means  of  acquiring  it  is  to  minimise  the 


Nicole:    On  Preserving  Peace  with  Men.         191 

deep  impression  that  the  defects  of  others  make  on  us.     And  for 

this  purpose  it  is  useful  to  consider  : —  \^^^ 

1.  That,  defects  being  as  common  as  they  are,  it  is  foolish  "to 
be  surprised  at  them  and  not  to  expect  them.     Men  are  made  up 
of  good  and  bad  qualities;  they  must  be  taken  on  this  footing, 
and  whoever  wishes  to  reap  advantages  from  their  intercourse 
ought  to  resolve  to  submit  patiently  to  the  inconveniences  that 
are  attached  to  it. 

2.  That  nothing  is  more  ridiculous  than  to  be  unreasonable 
because  another  is  so,  to  injure  ourselves  because  another  injures 
himself,  and  to  become  a  participator  in  all  the  follies  of  another, 
as  if  we  had  not  enough  with  our  own  defects  and  the  misfortunes 
of  all  the  rest.     Now  this  is  what  we  do  in  losing  patience  at  the 
faults  of  others. 

3.  That,  however  great  the  defects  that  we  find  in  others  may 
be,  they  only  injure  those  who  have  them,  and  do  us  no  harm 
unless  we  voluntarily  receive  .the   impression  of   it.     They  are 
objects  of   commiseration,  not  of   anger,  and  we  have  as   little 
reason  to  be  irritated  against  the  maladies  of  others'  minds  as 
against    those   that    attack    their   bodies.     There    is    even   this 
difference,  that   we   may   contract    bodily   maladies  against   our 
will,  whereas  only  our  own  will   can  give  entrance   to  mental 
maladies. 

4.  We  should  not  only  regard  the  defects  of  others  as  maladies, 
but  also  as  maladies  that  are  common  to  us,  for  we  are  subject  to 
them  as  they  are.     There  are  no  defects  to  which  we  are  not 
liable,  and  if  there  are  some  that  we  have  not,  we  have,  perhaps, 
others   greater.     Thus,  having  no  reason  to  prefer  ourselves  to 
them,  we  shall  find  that  we  have  none  to  take  offence  at  what 
they  do,  and  that  if  we  suffer  from  them  we  make  them  suffer  in 
our  turn. 

5.  The  faults  of  others,  if  we  could  regard  them  with  a  tranquil 
and  charitable  eye,  should  be  lessons  for  us  so  much  the  more  useful 
as  we  saw  the  deformity  in  them  much  better  than  in  our  own,  a 
part  of  which  self-esteem  always  hides  from  us.     They  might 
give  us  an  opportunity  of  remarking  that  the  passions  usually 
have  a  different  effect  from  what  is  asserted.     We  get  angry  in 
order  to  make  ourselves  believed,  and  the  more  angry  we  become 


1 92  Port-Royal  Education. 

the  less  we  are  believed.  We  are  offended  because  we  are  not  so 
much  esteemed  as  we  think  we  deserve,  and  we  are  less  esteemed 
the  more  we  seek  to  be  so.  We  are  angry  at  not  being  liked, 
wishing  to  be  so  by  force,  and  we  draw  upon  us  still  more  men's 
aversion. 

We  might  also  see  with  astonishment  how  far  these  same 
passions  blind  those  who  are  possessed  by  them.  For  these 
effects,  which  are  so  perceptible  to  others,  are  usually  unknown  to 
themselves.  And  it  often  happens  that,  making  themselves 
odious  and  disagreeable,  they  are  the  only  persons  who  do  not 
perceive  it. 

And  all  that  may  help  us  to  remember  either  faults  into  which 
we  formerly  fell  through  like  passions,  or  those  into  which  we  still 
fall  through  other  passions,  which  are  not,  perhaps,  less  dangerous, 
and  to  which  we  are  not  less  blind;  and  in  this  way,  all  our 
attention  being  drawn  to  our  own  faults,  we  shall  become  more 
disposed  to  bear  with  those  of  others. 

In  fine,  we  should  consider  that  it  is  as  ridiculous  to  get  angry 
for  the  faults  and  whims  of  others  as  to  be  offended  because 
the  weather  is  bad,  or  is  too  cold  or  too  hot,  because  our  anger  is 
as  little  capable  of  correcting  men  as  of  changing  the  seasons.1 
It  is  even  more  unreasonable  in  this  point,  that  by  getting  angry 
with  the  seasons  we  do  not  make  them  either  more  or  less  in- 
commodious ;  whereas  the  exasperation  that  we  feel  towards  men 
irritates  them  against  us,  and  makes  their  passions  more  lively 
and  active. 


1  Nicole  compromises  his  thesis  by  insisting  too  much  on  this  excellent 
precept  of  indulgence,  especially  by  means  of  these  comparisons  more  striking 
than  exact.  Cold  and^  heat  are  necessary  consequences  of  physical  phenomena. 
Do  men's  vices  and  faults  obey  the  same  law  ?  If  so,  what  becomes  of 
morality  ?  And  if  we  can  no  more  correct  men  than  change  the  seasons, 
what  is  the  aim  of  education  or  preaching  ?  We  must  not  try  to  prove  too 
much. 


Arnauld:   Eulogy  of  Descartes.  193 


EULOGY  ON  DESCARTES'  PHILOSOPHY. 

...  A  man  must  ill  understand  the  philosophy  of  M.  Descartes 
to  believe  of  it  what  this  author x  says :  That  it  consists  in  some 
truths,  or  seeming  truths,  mixed  with  some  errors  or  uncertain 
conjectures;  that  it  draws  bad  conclusions  from  good  premisses ;  that 
it  defends  and  explains  truths  by  false  reasoning  ;  that  if  it  some- 
times find*  the  truth  it  is  more  by  a  happy  accident  than  by  a  sure 
method ;  that  it  supports  it  rather  by  imagination  than  by  science; 
and  that  it  is  more  fertile  in  discussion  than  in  doctrine.  We  have 
only  to  take  the  opposite  of  all  this  to  form  a  true  idea  of  the 
philosophy  of  M.  Descartes ;  for  never  has  a  philosopher  reasoned 
more  clearly  and  exactly,  avoided  long  discourses,  and  said  more 
things  in  fewer  words,  been  less  satisfied  with  seeming  truths  and 
uncertain  conjectures,  and  taken  more  pains  to  build  on  the  rock 
and  not  on  the  sand,  that  is  to  say,  to  lay  down  nothing  but  on 
clear  and  certain  principles.  It  is  only  necessary  to  read  the  first 
book  of  his  Principles  or  his  Meditations  to  be  convinced  of  that. 
Nothing  is  more  ill-founded  in  this  respect  than  the  parallels  that 
this  writer  draws  between  heresy  and  philosophy.  .  .  . 

The  author  of  the  treatise  then  objected  to  philosophy  that  it 
passed  off  as  common  opinions  and  the  prejudices  of  habit,  the 
notions  most  universally  received  by  all  men,  as  heresies  make  the 
things  most  universally  received  pass  for  popular  opinions.  Arnauld 
accepts  the  parallel,  but  with  the  conclusion  that  if  "the  heretics 
are  wrong  the  philosophers  are  right." 

Many  judgments  that  men  form  on  natural  things  may  be  false, 
although  they  may  be  common  to  all  rneo,  because  they  have 
a  cause  of  error  common  to  all  men,  namely,  the  prejudices  of 
their  childhood.  For  as  long  as  we  are  children,  judging  things 
only  by  the  senses,  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  what  we  do  not 
perceive  by  any  sense  does  not  exist.  Thus  we  all  think,  in  our 


1  Le  Moine,  dean  of  the  chapter  at  Vitre,  in  Britanny,  had  composed 
a  treatise  on  the  essence  of  the  body  and  of  the  union  of  the  soul  with  the 
body,  against  the  philosophy  of  Descartes.  Arnauld,  then  at  Delft,  in 
Holland  (1680),  replied  to  it  in  a  letter  to  his  niece,  the  mother  Angelique 
de  Saint- Jean,  which  was  found  and  published  in  1780. 

O 


194  Port-Royal  Education, 

childhood,  that  there  is  nothing  at  all  in  a  bottle  when  there 
is  no  more  wine  in  it,  because  we  do  not  see  the  air  that  has  taken 
the  place  of  the  wine.  We  think,  in  the  same  way,  that  all 
heavy  things  fall  of  themselves;  but  there  is  this  difference 
between  these  two  false  judgments,  that  many  correct  the  first, 
because  by  degrees  we  learn  about  the  air ;  for,  being  sometimes 
hot  and  sometimes  cold,  and  being  able  to  be  moved  with  force  by 
the  wind  or  a  fan  against  our  faces,  the  sense  of  touch  teaches  us 
that  we  were  deceived  when  we  thought  that  it  was  nothing. 
But  because  we  could  not  discover  by  any  sense  the  subtle  matter 
that  draws  down  heavy  bodies,  it  has  been  an  opinion  almost 
universally  received  by  men  before  M.  Descartes  that  they  have 
themselves  a  certain  quality,  called  heaviness,  which  is  the  cause 
of  their  fall.  Now  I  maintain  that  he  was  right  in  not  resting  on 
this  opinion,  although  it  is  universally  received,  because  it  is  false, 
and  destroys  one  of  the  clearest  proofs  of  the  divinity,  which 
is  that  matter  can  never  move  of  itself ;  so  that,  since  there  is 
movement  in  nature,  matter  must  necessarily  have  received  it  from 
a  higher  cause,  which  can  only  be  God.  There  are  many  other 
things  in  which  M.  Descartes  has  done  well  to  reject  as  vulgar 
errors  what  is  believed  without  reason,  because  it  was  believed 
in  childhood,  however  universally  received  these  opinions  may 
be 

uc.    .     .    • 

In  creating  the  philosophers  of  the  present  day,  God  does  not 
give  them  a  larger,  more  enlightened,  and  less  defective  intellect 
than  He  did  to  those  who  lived  two  thousand  years  ago.  The 
general  corruption  of  human  nature  does  not  diminish  with  the 
progress  of  the  ages  ;  rather  it  increases,  and  with  it  the  blindness 
of  the  natural  intellect.  Nothing  is  less  sound  than  this  assertion. 
It  is  not  a  question  of  intellect  in  itself,  whether  it  be  greater 
and  less  defective  in  the  men  of  the  present  day  than  in  those 
of  former  times.  It  is,  perhaps,  equal  in  all  men,  and  possibly 
it  is  only  the  manner  of  using  it  that  makes  some  men  more  able 
than  others.  It  is  only  a  question,  then,  of  ability  itself,  and  not 
even  of  general  ability,  but  only  of  that  which  regards  the  natural 
sciences.  Now  it  is  a  ridiculous  paradox  to  suppose  that  the  most 
ancient  have  always  been  the  most  learned  men,  for  the  reason 
that  the  number  of  centuries  increases  the  general  corruption  of 


A  rnauld :   Eulogy  of  Descartes.  \  9  5 

human  nature,  and  with  it  the  blindness  of  the  natural  intellect. 
If  that  were  so  it  follows  that  there  were  before  the  deluge  more 
able  physicians,  more  learned  geometricians,  and  greater  astronomers 
than  Hippocrates,  Archimedes,  and  Ptolemy.  Is  it  not  clear,  on 
the  contrary,  that  human  sciences  are  perfected  by  time  ?  I  do 
not  condescend  to  discuss  it.  It  is  plain  that  nothing  is  more 
ill-founded  than  what  this  writer  advances  on  the  increase  of 
blindness  of  the  natural  intellect,  in  order  to  conclude  from  it,  as 
he  does,  that  M.  Descartes  is  not  comparable  to  the  philosophers 
of  antiquity.  We  must  not  flatter  the  men  of  this  age,  he  says. 
If  they  are  compared,  having  only  the  light  that  they  bring  ivith 
them  into  the  world  and  without  that  which  they  receive  through 
instruction  in  the  Christian  verities,  they  are  not  comparable  for 
energy  of  mind,  soundness  of  judgment,  and  accuracy  of  reasoning 
with  the  great  men  of  pagan  antiquity. 

But  it  is  rather  those  great  men  of  pagan  antiquity  who  are  by 
no  means  to  be  compared  in  respect  to  the  natural  sciences,  of 
which  alone  we  are  speaking,  with  the  great  men  of  these  latter 
times.  For  all  that  Ptolemy  and  the  most  able  astronomers  of 
past  ages  knew  of  the  heavens  and  of  the  courses  of  the  stars 
does  not  approach  what  is  known  at  present,  since  Copernicus 
and  Tycho  Brahe*  have  carried  this  science  very  much  farther 
than  it  was  before  their  time ;  that  Galileo  has  still  more  improved 
it  by  the  use  of  telescopes;  and  that  such  men  of  our  time  as 
M.  Huyghens  and  M.  Cassini  are  still  making  new  discoveries.1 
Galen  understood  anatomy  best  of  all  the  ancients,  and  better 
described  the  uses  of  the  parts  of  the  human  body ;  nevertheless, 
this  is  almost  nothing  if  we  compare  it  to  what  Harvey,  Stenon, 


1  Ptolemy,  a  Greek  astronomer,  second  century  B.C. — Copernicus,  a  Pole 
(1473-1543),  demonstrated  the  falsity  of  Ptolemy's  theories,  and  founded  the 
planetary  system,  which  places  the  sun  in  the  centre  of  the  universe. — 
Tycho  Brahe,  a  Swede  (1546-1601)  ;  a  better  theory  of  the  moon  and 
numerous  observations  of  the  stars  are  due  to  him. — Cassini,  Jean-Dominique 
(1625-1712),  an  Italian  naturalized  in  France,  the  head  of  an  illustrious 
family  of  scholars,  author  of  some  remarkable  works  on  Jupiter,  Mars,  Venus, 
the  satellites  of  Saturn  and  the  Zodiacal  light ;  organizer  of  the  Observatory 
of  Paris. — Huyghens,  a  Dutchman  (1629-1695),  a  celebrated  mathematician 
and  astronomer.  To  him  are  especially  due  the  discovery  of  Saturn's  ring, 
the  adaptation  of  the  pendulum  to  clocks,  &c.  The  disastrous  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  obliged  him  to  leave  France. 


196  Port- Royal  Education. 

Willis,1  and  so  many  others  have  discovered  in  our  time.  How 
many  things  has  chemistry  (of  which  the  ancients  had  no 
knowledge)  made  known  in  minerals,  plants,  and  the  parts  of 
animals,  of  which  the  ancients  had  not  the  least  suspicion,  the 
least  ideal  The  invention  of  the  microscope  has  given  us,  as  it 
were,  new  eyes  to  see  an  infinite  number  of  God's  works,  of  which 
the  ancients  had  no  knowledge.  Is  it  otherwise  than  by  reason- 
ing more  accurately  than  the  ancients  that  it  has  been  discovered 
that  a  vast  number  of  effects,  which  they  attributed  to  a  fantastic 
horror  of  a  vacuum,  ought  to  be  attributed  to  the  gravity  of  the 
air?  And,  in  fine,  although  Archimedes,  Apollonius,  and  many 
other  great  men  of  antiquity  have  left  us  some  very  fine  things 
in  geometry  and  other  parts  of  mathematics,  a  man  must  be  a 
very  bad  judge  of  these  things  not  to  admit  that  M.  Descartes 
has  gone  incomparably  farther  than  all  of  them  in  his  Geometry 
and  Dioptrics?  I  might  say  as  much  of  music  and  mechanics; 
the  two  small  tracts  that  he  gave  upon  them,  which  are  almost 
nothing,  and  which  he  wrote  for  pastime,  are  worth  more  than 
all  the  ancients  wrote  on  both  these  sciences.  .  .  . 


OF  THE  UNION  OF  THE  SOUL  AND  BODY. 

I  cannot  avoid  showing  here  some  indignation  against  this 
opponent  of  M.  Descartes'  philosophy ;  for  who  can  bear  with 
patience  that  he  should  single  out,  in  order  to  decry  it,  what  all 
enlightened  philosophers,  if  they  are  at  all  equitable,  must  admit 
to  be  his  greatest  glory,  and  what  all  pious  persons  must  regard 
as  a  singular  effect  of  God's  Providence,  which  has  willed  to 
prevent  the  frightful  leaning  that  many  persons  in  these  latter 
times  seem  to  have  towards  irreligion  and  freethinking,  by  a 
means  suitable  to  their  disposition  ?  They  are  people  who  will 

1  Galen,  a  Greek  physician,  second  century  A.D.,  much  attached  to  the 
ideas  of  Aristotle,  dominated  medicine  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  as  his 
master  did  philosophy. — Harvey,  an  English   physician  (1578-1658)  ;   his 
most  celebrated  discovery  was  that  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  (1628). 
— Stenon,  a  Swedish  anatomist  (1638-1687).— Willis,  an  English  physician 
(1622-1675). 

2  Dioptrics  is  that  part  of  optics  that  especially  treats  of  refraction  and 
catoptrics  of  reflection. 


Arnauld:   Eulogy  of  Descartes.  197 

accept  nothing  but  what  can  be  known  by  the  light  of  reason, 
who  have  a  thorough  disinclination  to  begin  by  believing,  who 
suspect  all  who  profess  piety  to  be  weak-minded,  and  who  close 
every  avenue  to  religion  by  the  opinion  which  they  hold,  and 
which  is,  in  the  greater  number,  a  result  of  their  moral  corrup- 
tion, that  all  that  is  said  of  another  life  is  nothing  but  fables, 
and  that  everything  dies  with  the  body.  There  are  minds  of 
this  sort  in  all  religions,  and  still  more  now  among  heretics 
than  among  Catholics.  And  it  is  sufficiently  clear  that  as  long 
as  they  hold  these  false  principles,  it  is  not  to  be  hoped  either 
that  the  former  will  become  sincere  Catholics  or  the  latter 
embrace  piety  and  become  good  Christians.  It  seems,  then,  that 
it  was  most  important,  in  order  to  remove  the  greatest  obstacle 
to  the  salvation  of  all  these  people,  and  prevent  this  contagion 
from  spreading  more  and  more,  to  disturb  them  in  their  false 
repose,  which  only  rests  on  their  persuasion  that  it  is  a  weakness 
of  mind  to  believe  that  the  soul  survives  the  body.  Now  could 
God,  who  uses  His  creatures  as  it  pleases  Him,  and  in  this  way 
hides  the  operation  of  His  providence,  cause  them  this  trouble, 
so  well  fitted  to  make  them  return  to  themselves,  better  than 
by  raising  up  a  man1  who  possessed  all  the  qualities  that  this 
sort  of  people  could  desire,  in  order  to  abase  their  presumption, 
and  force  them  at  least  to  a  proper  mistrust  of  their  pretended 
lights]  a  grandeur  of  mind  quite  extraordinary  in  the  most 
abstract  sciences ;  an  application  to  philosophy  alone,  which  is 
not  suspicious  to  them  j  an  open  avowal  to  throw  off  all  ordinary 
prejudices,  which  is  much  to  their  taste,  and  which,  by  that  very 
fact,  has  found  a  way  to  convince  the  most  incredulous,  provided 
they  will  only  open  their  eyes  to  the  light  that  is  presented  to 
them,  that  nothing  is  more  contrary  to  reason  than  to  wish  that 
the  dissolution  of  the  body,  which  is  nothing  but  the  disarrange- 
ment of  certain  parts  of  the  matter  that  composes  it,  should  be 
the  extinction  of  the  soul?  And  how  did  he  discover  thatl 


1  Arnauld,  alone  at  Port-Royal,  exhibits  this  lively  admiration  for  the 
genius  of  Descartes.  I  have  shown  in  the  Introduction,  p.  28,  Nicole's  in- 
consistency on  this  point,  and,  p.  11,  the  prejudice  of  de  Saci,  who  smiles  at 
seeing  Aristotle  despoiled  by  a  robber,  who  will  be  despoiled  in  his  turn. 


198  Port- Royal  Education. 

Precisely  by  doing  what  this  author  thinks  it  so  bad  that  he  has 
done,  so  depraved  is  his  taste. 

By  establishing  on  clear  principles  solely  founded  on  natural 
notions,  with  which  every  man  of  good  sense  should  agree, 
that  the  soul  and  the  body,  that  it  is  say,  that  which  thinks  and 
that  which  has  extension,  are  two  substances  totally  distinct ;  so 
that  it  is  impossible  that  the  extended  substance  should  be  a 
modification  of  that  which  thinks  or  that  thought  should  be  a 
modification  of  extended  substance.  For  that  alone  being  well 
established,  as  it  is  in  the  Meditations  of  M.  Descartes,  no  free- 
thinker who  has  an  equitable  mind  can  remain  convinced  that 
our  souls  die  with  our  bodies.  For  there  are  none  who  more 
readily  agree  that  nothing  that  exists  returns  into  nothingness, 
and  that  thus  what  is  called  the  death  of  the  body  is  the  destruc- 
tion of  some  parts  of  matter,  which  always  remains  in  nature. 
They  cannot,  then,  imagine  that  the  thinking  substance  can 
be  reduced  to  nothing,  since  the  bodies  themselves  are  not  so 
reduced.  And  they  must,  besides,  admit  that  what  may  be  called 
destruction  in  the  body  cannot  be  suitable  to  that,  because  there 
can  be  neither  change  nor  disarrangement  of  parts  in  a  substance 
which  has  none,  such  as  a  thinking  substance. 

But  this  author,  far  from  being  grateful  to  M.  Descartes  for 
having  so  clearly  established  the  distinction  between  soul  and 
body,  which  is  the  only  solid  foundation  of  its  immortality,  makes 
it  a  reason  for  insulting  him,  as  if  he  had  spoilt  everything  by 
that.  If  M.  Descartes,  he  says,  has  found  some  new  secret  in 
nature^  it  is  that  of  having  separated  soul  and  body  rather  than 
uniting  them.  .  .  .  He  could  not  more  highly  praise  those  whom 
he  undertakes  to  decry.  Yes,  we  admit  it,  if  anything  renders  M. 
Descartes  commendable,  it  is  to  have  so  clearly  separated  soul  and 
body,  and  to  have  so  well  established  that  they  are  two  totally 
distinct  substances,  of  which  one  only  is  material,  that  we  need 
no  longer  trouble  ourselves,  after  that,  how  two  substances  so 
different  can  be  united  to  form  one  man.  He  need  not  carry  his 
views  very  far  before  recognizing  that  it  is  infinitely  more  important 
to  convince  men  that  the  thinking  part  in  them  is  entirely  differ- 
ent from  that  part  of  matter  which  forms  their  bodies,  than 
to  prove  to  them  that  this  part  of  matter  is  joined  to  their  soul. 


Arnauld  '  :  Eulogy  of  Descartes.  199 

They  arc  sufficiently  convinced  of  this  union,  and  there  is  more 
reason  to  fear  that  they  will  carry  it  too  far  by  conceiving  of  their 
soul  only  as  a  more  subtle  part  of  their  body,  like  the  Epicureans 
and  the  Stoics,  than  there  is  to  fear  that  they  may  believe  that 
their  soul  is  to  their  body  what  a  pilot  is  to  a  ship  that  he  navigates. 
"We  know  that  this  last  was  the  idea  of  the  Platonists  ;  hence  the 
definition  that  they  gave  of  man  was  that  he  is  a  soul  that 
governs  a  body.  And  St.  Augustine  deemed  so  little  that  this  was 
a  pernicious  error,  that  he  reproduces  the  opinion  of  these  philo- 
sophers without  condemning  it  in  the  book,  Morals  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  ch.  iv.,  admitting  that  it  is  a  rather  difficult  question  to 
solve.  .  .  .  M.  de  Pibrac,1  also,  has  not  been  censured  for  saying 
the  same  thing  in  one  of  his  quatrains,  which  have  had  great 
vogue,  and  have  been  translated  into  many  languages  :  — 

That  which  you  see  of  man  is  not  man  ; 
It  is  the  prison  in  which  he  is  shut  up  ; 
The  tottering  bed  on  which  he  sleeps  a  short  sleep. 

It  is,  therefore,  very  strange  that  this  author  was  ignorant  of 
such  a  common  thing,  which  makes  him  exclaim,  after  having 
falsely  attributed  this  operation  to  M.  Descartes,  This  thought  is 
irrelevant,  ridiculous,  false,  and  heretical  in  philosophy  itself,  in  the 
judgment  of  all  men,  in  all  times,  and  in  every  part  of  the  world, 
except  among  the  Cartists.2 

That  is  doubly  false  ;  for  it  is  not  true  that  this  was  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Cartists  ;  and  it  is  true  that  it  was  that  of  the  great 
philosophers  of  antiquity.  However  it  may  be,  although  it  might 
be  said  that  the  distinction  that  M.  Descartes  has  so  well  estab- 


1  Gui  diiK  seigneur  de  Pibrac,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1529,  died  1584, 
president  c^^wtier  and  chancellor  of   Queen  Marguerite  at  Nerac.     Et. 
Pasquier   calls   him    "one   of  the  lights   of   the   age."     De   Thou,    in    his 
Memoires,  says  of  him,  "  A  man  of  incorruptible  probity  ...  a  noble  heart 
and  generous  mind."     Montaigne  also  celebrates    "the  worthy   Monsieur 
Pibrac,  a  mind  so  gentle,  opinions  so  sound,  manners  so  agreeable."  (Essays,  iii. 
9.)     His  Quatrains  moraux,  contenant  preceptes  et  enseignements  utiles  pour  la 
vie  de  Vhomme  public  were  printed  for  the  first  time  in  1574.      "Translated 
into   all  the  languages  of    Europe,    and  even  into   Arabic,  Turkish,   and 
Persian,  they  did  more  than  secularize  the  teaching  of  virtue,  they  popular- 
ized  it  ;    this   very   small   book   has   truly   been   the   catechism  of  several 
generations."  (E.  COUGNY,  Pibrac,  sa  vie  et  ses  Merits,  1869.) 

2  We  say  Cartesians,  from  the  Latin  name  of  Descartes,  Cartesius.     His 
philosophy  is  called  Cartesianism, 


2OO  Port-Royal  Education. 

lished  between  the  soul  and  body  might  give  reason  to  think 
of  man  as  the  Platonists  did,  this  would  be  the  prick  of  a  pin  in 
comparison  with  the  great  plague  that  he  cured  in  destroying 
by  this  distinction  the  impious  opinion  of  the  mortality  of  the 
soul,  which  is  principally  founded  on  the  idea  that  it  is  of  the 
same  nature  as  the  body,  and  which  is  the  most  damnable  of 
all  errors,  those  who  hold  it  being  led  to  abandon  themselves  to  all 
their  passions,  because,  being  persuaded  that  there  is  nothing 
to  expect  after  this  life,  they  have  no  curb  to  restrain  them. 
Where,  then,  is  the  judgment  of  those  who,  being  obliged  to 
acknowledge,  if  they  are  at  all  fair,  that  the  philosophy  of  M. 
Descartes  has,  without  comparison,  broken  up  more  than  any 
other  the  foundation  of  freethinking,  hold  it  in  small  esteem,  and 
do  not  show  any  gratitude  towards  him  but  are  disturbed  by  the 
fear  that  it  will  lead  men  to  think  that  they  are  not  composed  of 
body  and  soul  3  It  is  like  a  man  who  should  quarrel  with  the 
doctor  who  had  cured  a  mortal  ulcer  by  a  small  incision,  which  it 
might  be  feared  he  would  not  be  able  to  close.  The  comparison  is 
exact,  for  here  in  the  same  way  the  fear  is  imaginary,  the  union  of 
soul  and  body  being  at  least  as  well  explained  in  this  philosophy 
as  in  any  other. 

(Arnauld,  (Euvres,  t.  xxxviii.  p.  90.) 


EXCELLENT  MAXIMS,  INCLUDING  SOME  OF  THE  RULES 

THAT  A  PRECEPTOR   SHOULD  LAY  DOWN  FOR 

HIMSELF  IN  THIS  EMPLOYMENT. 

No  art  is  without  its  rules,  and  no  science  without^^principles 
and  particular  maxims. 

It  must  not,  then,  be  doubted  that  the  Christian  education 
of  children  has  its  own,  which  are  as  much  more  excellent  as  the 
end  proposed  is  infinitely  above  the  temporal  conveniences  and 
advantages  that  are  the  object  of  the  other  arts  and  sciences. 

There  would  be  a  greater  number  of  these  maxims  if  we  wished 
to  repeat  them  all;  I  shall  here  set  down  only  the  principal,  on 
which  each  man  may,  if  he  shall  think  fit,  make  others  for  his  own 
special  use. 


Coustel:   Rules  for  Education.  2OI 

To  be  very  Assiduous  ivith  Children. 

Nothing  is  so  useful  as  assiduity  for  learning  the  temper,  mind, 
and  genius  of  children  ;x  they  may  be  hid  for  some  hours,  but  it 
is  impossible  for  them  to  use  a  constant  dissimulation.  Thus  we 
are  in  a  better  position  to  counteract  their  bad  inclinations  by 
seeing  from  what  sources  they  spring.  .  .  . 

In  order  to  judge  how  useful  this  assiduity  is,  we  have  only  to 
consider  that  what  Plautus  says  of  the  general  of  an  army  may  be 
said  of  a  preceptor,  that  disorders  always  happen  when  he  is 
absent,  which  his  presence,  no  doubt,  would  have  prevented.  .  .  . 

To  be  very  Watchful  of  Himself  and  Them. 

It  is  not  sufficient  for  a  preceptor  to  be  assiduous  with  the 
children  confided  to  his  care  ;  besides  that,  he  must  be  very 
watchful  over  himself  and  them. 

Over  himself,  because  children  are  lynx-eyed  for  the  smallest 
actions,  words,  and  movements  of   their  masters,  to  make  them 
the  subject  of   their  conversations  and  often  of  their  raillery  if\ 
they  are  not  well  disciplined ;    for  this  reason  he  should  always 
be  on  his  guard,  as  if  he  were  in  an  enemy's  country.2 

He  should  also  carefully  watch  over  his  children,  for  three 
reasons. 

The  first  is  that  it  is  much  easier  to  prevent  faults  than  to 
correct  them  when  they  are  once  fixed  in  their  hearts.  There-  \ 
fore  it  is  necessary  to  reprove  them  constantly.  That  which  has 
been  once  cut,  as  St.  Bernard  says,  will  quickly  shoot  out  again 
in  them ;  what  has  been  driven  away  returns ;  what  has  been 
extinguished  is  relighted ;  and  what  has  only  been  lulled  to  sleep 
soon  awakens.1^ 

1  These  pedagogic  reasons  have  quite  another  value  than  the  motive  so 
often  given  by  the  masters  of  Port-Royal,  namely,  the  necessity  of  watch- 
fulness to  prevent  the  devil  devouring  his  prey.     (See  Saint-Cyran,  p.  76.) 

2  "  Remember,"   says  Mme.  de  Maintenon   to  the  Ladies  of  Saint-Cyr, 
''that  you  must  appear  irreproachable  to  children.     You   cannot  imagine 
how  clear-sighted  they  are,  and  what  small  account  they  make  of  persons 
whom  they  do  not  esteem.  .  .  .     You  must  not  think  that  you  will  impose 
upon   children,  they   can   discover   the  bad    faith  of  persons  who  seek  for 
pretexts  to  hide  their  defects  or  their  passions.     Truth,  as  you  know,  pierces 
through  walls,  and  sooner  or  later  appears,  whatever  care  may  be  taken  to 
hide  it."    (Entretien,  Dec.,  1706.) 


2O2  Port-Royal  Education. 

The  second  reason  is  that  the  faults  of  children  are  usually 
imputed  to  the  teachers,  and  attributed  to  their  want  of  care  or 
negligence. 

In  fine,  the  third  and  most  important  is  the  indispensable 
obligation  they  are  under  to  answer  for  them  to  God.  .  .  . 

This  watchfulness  of  the  preceptor  refers  not  only  to  those  who 
are  firm,  whom  he  should,  if  possible,  prevent  from  falling,  but 
also  to  those  who  have  fallen,  to  whom  he  should  give  a  hand  to 
raise  them  from  their  fall. 

It  should  go  so  far  as  to  take  note  of  the  tempers  and  dominant 
inclinations  of  the  children,  in  order  to  quickly  apply  the  remedies 
that  prudence  will  show  them  to  be  the  most  useful,  for  it  may  be 
said  that  the  strength  of  desire,  which  only  ceases  in  us  with 
death,  is  so  much  the  more  violent  in  them  as  the  reason  is 
weaker,  and  that  they  have  as  yet  no  experience  of  the  world. 
It  is  necessary,  then,  to  weaken  and  diminish  it  by  retrenching  all 
that  is  capable  of  fortifying  and  encouraging  it. 

In  order  to  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  note  their  inclinations  and 
the  direction  of  their  natural  disposition ;  that  is  to  say,  whether 
they  are  gentle, 'affable,  and  obliging,  or,  on  the  contrary,  whether 
they  are  proud,  irritable,  and  disdainful;  whether  they  are  sober  and 
temperate,  or  whether  they  like  drinking  and  good  cheer ;  whether 
they  have  the  fear  of  God,  or  are  hasty  and  disobedient,  &c. 

But  how  are  we  to  know  this1?  you  will  say.  I  answer  that  their 
disposition  soon  shows  itself  in  their  conversation  and  actions. 

But  it  is  not  sufficient  to  know  what  the  disposition  of  children 
is,  it  must  also  be  remedied.  And  this  is  the  difficulty;  for 
wherever  there  is  opposition  there  is  a  struggle,  which  is  unpleas- 
ing  to  human  nature,  which  does  not  like  to  be  reproved. 

It  is  in  this,  then,  that  the  vigilance,  wit,  and  tact  of  a  preceptor 
should  appear ;  he  should  rouse  a  naturally  slow  child,  and,  on  the 
contrary,  soften  and  restrain  a  too  impetuous  and  excitable  nature. 

On  this  subject,  it  has  been  remarked  that  those  who  had 
charge  of  the  education  of  Sebastian,  King  of  Portugal,1  made  a 

1  Sebastian,  the  successor  of  John  III.,  in  1557.  Philip  II.  perfidiously 
encouraged  him  to  go  to  war  in  Morocco,  where  he  met  his  death  in  the 
bloody  battle  of  Alcazar-Kebir  (1578).  Portuguese  nationality  was  lost 
until  the  awakening  in  1640. 


Coustel:   Rules  for  Education.  203 

very  great  mistake,  for  he  was  of  an  ardent  and  fiery  nature.  As 
he  burnt  with  the  excessive  desire  of  acquiring  glory,  there  was 
material  to  form  an  Alexander  if  he  had  had  the  good  fortune 
to  find  an  Aristotle  ;  but  that  failed  him.  Instead  of  moderating 
the  excessive  ardour  that  he  showed  in  everything,  he  was  allowed 
to  follow  his  course.  The  most  violent  exercises  were  his  ordinary 
diversions.  He  affected,  in  hunting,  the  chase  of  the  wild  boar, 
and  went  on  the  sea  when  it  was  most  stormy,  and  he  was  praised 
for  this.  But  at  last  this  courage,  which  had  not  early  been 
trained  to  submit  to  reason  and  allow  itself  to  be  conducted  by 
its  light,  became  fatal  to  him.  He  was  carried  away  by  his  zeal 
to  turn  his  arms  against  the  Moors ;  and  this  zeal,  which  was  good 
but  not  sufficiently  under  control,  caused  the  loss  of  the  battle  of 
Alcacer,  which  brought  on  his  subjects  numberless  miseries,  and 
caused  them  to  fall  under  the  yoke  of  their  greatest  enemies. 

It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  more  difficulty  is  found  in 
the  practice  than  in  the  theory  of  this  maxim. 

To  have  Special  Regard  to  their  Good  Morals. 

I  have  already  said  that  there  is  much  difference  between  the 
education  that  the  pagans  gave  to  their  children  and  that  which 
Christians  should  give  theirs.  As  the  former  had  only  the  world 
in  view,  they  paid  especial  attention  to  making  their  children 
recommendable  by  the  sciences  and  polite  literature.  But  it  is] 
not  so  with  Christians ;  they  have  heaven  in  view,  for  which 
sciences  are  much  less  necessary  than  good  morals. 

We  must  imitate  sometimes  the  sculptors,  who  are  constantly 
removing  their  imperfections,  and  sometimes  the  painters,  who 
finish  their  works  by  daily  adding  some  new  touch  of  the  brush 
or  some  new  lines  of  beauty.1 

St.  Chrysostom  compares  the  soul  of  children  to  a  golden  city, 
in  the  midst  of  which  the  King  of  Heaven  wishes  to  place  His 
residence ;  and  he  compares  the  preceptor  to  the  governor,  who 
should  watch  over  its  preservation. 

He  says  that  its  citizens  are  thoughts  which  go  in  and  out  by 
three  principal  gates,  the  eyes,  the  ears,  and  the  mouth. 

1  These  graceful  expressions  are  borrowed  from  St.  Chrysostom. 


2O4  Port-Royal  Education. 

He  wishes  the  council  to  take  every  precaution  and  to  do  its 
duty  by  setting  trusty  guards  at  these  three  gates,  through  which 
death  may  enter  into  the  soul. 

As  to  the  eyes,  which  are,  he  says,  very  difficult  to  guard,  he 
wishes  children  not  to  be  taken  to  balls  or  the  theatre.1  For  the 
mouth,  he  wishes  care  to  be  taken  that  the  children  hold  proper 
discourse,  that  they  do  not  sing  secular  songs,  that  they  do  not 
pass  their  time  in  answering,  slandering,  or  laughing  at  persons. 
And  as  there  is  a  great  tie  between  the  ears  and  the  tongue,  in 
order  to  provide  for  the  safety  of  the  ears,  he  forbids  too  great 
freedom  of  speech  to  be  used  before  children,  because  they 
resemble  echoes  that  only  repeat  what  they  have  heard. 

To  Separate  them  from  those  whose  Company  might  be 
Injurious  to  them. 

As  vices,  whether  bodily  or  mental,  are  easily  communicated, 
and  as  they  work  their  way  by  an  imperceptible  contagion  even 
into  the  hearts  of  children,  through  their  inclination  to  evil,  one 
of  the  principal  objects  of  the  vigilance  of  a  preceptor  is  to 
prevent  the  children  under  his  care  from  having  any  intercourse 
with  those  of  their  own  age  who  might  corrupt  them,  especially 
if  they  are  swearers,  not  decent  in  conversation,  or  given  to  wine 
and  dishonesty,  for  children  are  usually  very  much  disposed  to 
imitate  others  in  evil  as  well  as  good  .  .  . 

To  have  the  Heart  full  of  Charity  towards  them. 

As  in  this  employment  the  preceptor  holds  the  place  of  the 
parents,  he  should  endeavour  to  enter  into  their  spirit,  and  fill 
his  heart  with  the  tenderness  and  love  that  nature  has  given 
them  for  their  children ;  or,  better,  with  the  charity  that  .  .  .  has 
all  the  tenderness  of  natural  affection  without  its  defects  and 
weaknesses. 

1  All  the  masters  of  Port-Royal  are  unanimous  in  condemning  the  theatre. 
Lancelot  gave  up  his  preceptorship  with  the  princesse  de  Conti,  rather  than 
take  her  children  to  the  theatre.  Nicole  calls  dramatic  authors  public 
poisoners,  and  does  not  even  spare  the  Cid.  Racine,  who  on  this  occasion 
quarrelled  with  Port-Royal,  succeeded,  however,  in  getting  Phcdrc  approved 
by  Arnauld. 


Coustel :   Rules  for  Education.  205 

This  charity  will  teach  him  not  to  treat  them  in  a  base  and 
flattering  manner,  overlooking  the  imperfections  that  he  should 
correct;  nor  in  a  domineering  manner,  which  would  become 
hateful  and  insupportable  to  them,  but  in  a  manner  always  gentle 
and  condescending,  so  that  the  children  fear  him  as  their  master, 
respect  him  as  their  father,  and  love  him  as  their  best  friend. 

This  will  make  him  take  every  precaution  to  make  them  avoid 
what  will  be  injurious  to  them. 

This  will  lead  him  always  to  speak  to  them,  not  in  a  rough 
and  repellent  tone,  but  with  a  moderation  and  gentleness  which 
will  give  them  the  confidence  that  they  should  always  have  in 
him.  .  .  . 

And,  in  fact,  as  heavy  rains  run  over  the  surface  of  the  ground 
without  penetrating  and  fertilizing  it,  so  rough  words  make  no 
impression  on  the  mind,  into  which  they  do  not  sink. 

As  studies  give  most  trouble  to  young  children,  it  will  cause 
him  to  seek  every  means  of  relieving  them ;  for  example,  by 
telling  them  the  words  that  they  cannot  find,  explaining  the 
difficulties  that  stop  them,  and  thus  making  their  understanding 
of  their  authors  more  easy;  in  fine,  by  encouraging  those  of 
moderate  capacity,  and  aiding  them  to  learn  their  lessons,  &c. 

This  charity  also  will  make  him  bear  with  much  patience  a 
hundred  small  defects  that  age  will  cure,  by  showing  very  often 
greater  signs  of  affection  to  those  who  have  greater  natural 
imperfections,  and  imitating  in  this  way  the  conduct  of  mothers 
who  caress  more,  says  St.  Bernard,  the  weakest  of  their  children. 

No  doubt  nothing  is  so  useful  both  to  the  preceptor  and  to  the 
children  as  this  kindly  and  charitable  conduct,  because  it  is  an 
infallible  means  for  the  preceptor  to  make  himself  loved,  and  to 
incline  his  children,  in  consequence,  to  study  and  virtue ;  for  as 
the  heart  is  the  source  of  all  actions,  being  once  master  of  that, 
he  gets  done  all  that  he  wishes. 

Love  with  all  your  heart,  says  St.  Augustine,  and  afterwards 
do  what  you  like  to  your  neighbour.  If  you  reprove  him  and 
become  angry  with  him,  he  will  not  take  offence,  because  he 
knows  that  you  act  in  this  way  only  because  you  love  him;  and 
even  if  you  go  so  far  as  to  chastise  him,  he  accepts  it,  because  he 
is  convinced  that  you  only  wish  for  his  good.  .  .  . 


2o6  Port-Royal  Education. 


To  bear  their  Inattention  to  Study  and  all  their  other  Defects  icith 
much  Patience. 

We  must  not  be  astonished  to  find  defects  in  children.  .  .  . 
Whether  these  defects  proceed  from  the  corruption  of  nature  or 
the  weakness  of  their  age,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  them  with  much 
patience  and  compassion,  and  assist  the  children  to  correct  them 
little  by  little.  .  .  . 

But,  you  will  say,  how  is  it  possible  to  bear  so  many  small 
trifles,  whose  repetition  makes  them  tiresome,  as  also  their  in- 
attention to  study  and  their  small  liking  for  the  finest  things  that 
are  told  them? 

I  admit  that  it  is  troublesome  and  annoying,  and  the  more 
intelligence  and  energy  a  person  has  the  more  trouble  he  has  to 
descend  to  these  minutiae. 

But  it  is  necessary,  however,  thus  to  descend,  in  order  to 
elevate  them  little  by  little,  and  to  imitate  nurses,  who  are 
satisfied  with  giving  milk  to  their  little  ones,  waiting  for  them 
to  grow  and  arrive  at  a  state  in  which  more  solid  food  may 
be  given  them. 

And,  in  fact,  demanding  reason  from  children  and  exacting 
from  them  firmness  and  attachment  to  what  is  good  is  like  seeking 
fruit  on  a  tree  newly  planted.  We  must  put  up  with  their  weak- 
ness for  some  time.  .  .  .  We  must  remember  the  fine  saying  of  St. 
Chrysologus,  that  a  physician  who  will  not  suffer  with  the  patient, 
and  who  does  not  become  infirm  with  the  infirm,  is  not  in  a 
position  to  restore  him  to  health.  .  .  . 

To  treat  them,  as  far  as  possible,  with  great  Gentleness. 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  bear  the  faults  of  children  with  great 
patience,  but  this  toleration  must  be  accompanied  with  great 
gentleness. 

Experience  sufficiently  shows  that  children  who  are  treated  too 
severely,  under  the  pretext  of  making  them  accomplished  men, 
imperceptibly  accustom  themselves  to  dissimulate,  and  that  under 
an  appearance  of  virtue  they  conceal  a  fund  of  corruption  and 
horrible  licentiousness. 


Coustcl :   Rules  for  Education.  207 

It  is  the  same  as  regards  studies,  for  too  great  severity  in  the 
master  very  often  induces  aversion  for  them.  We  must,  then,  as 
far  as  possible,  and  following  Plato's  advice,  rather  lead  children 
to  virtue  and  study  by  the  gentleness  of  persuasion  than  by 
excessive  rigour.  .  .  . 

Away,  then,  with  those  looks  in  which  the  marks  of  an  odious 
severity  are  continually  depicted  !  We  cannot  expect  by  frighten- 
ing children  to  make  them  respect  us  and  to  lead  them  to  their 
duties,  love  being  incomparably  more  powerful  than  fear  in  obtain- 
ing from  them  what  we  desire.  .  .  . 

"  Labour  rather,"  says  St.  Bernard,  "  to  make  yourselves  loved 
by  children  than  feared.  And  if  sometimes  it  is  needful  to  use 
severity,  let  it  be  the  severity  of  a  father,  and  not  that  of  a  tyrant. 
Show  that  you  are  the  mothers  of  the  children  by  treating  them 
with  much  tenderness,  and  their  fathers  by  reproving  them  for 
their  faults.  Cease  to  be  haughty  and  cruel,  and  become  gentle. 
Lay  aside  punishments  and  rods.  .  .  ." 

But  when  I  say  that  a  preceptor  should  treat  his  children  with 
much  gentleness,  I  do  not  mean  that  it  should  degenerate  into  an 
indulgence  that  encourages  vice  and  tends  to  multiply  faults  which 
he  is  bound  to  punish,  since  this  gentleness  would  be  equally  pre- 
judicial to  himself  and  the  children. 

And  as  the  corruption  of  human  nature  seems  at  present  to 
have  reached  its  height,  although  it  is  to  be  wished  that  all 
children  could  always  be  treated  with  great  mildness,  there  are 
some,  nevertheless,  with  respect  to  whom  we  must  be  contented 
to  keep  it  in  our  hearts,  it  being  more  advantageous  to  their  well- 
being  that  we  should  always  appear  rather  severe ;  and  this  it 
seems  is  what  the  Holy  Spirit  meant  to  confirm  by  opposing,  as 
He  does,  that  indulgence  which  is  natural  to  parents,  in  many 
passages  where  He  seems  always  to  put  the  rod  into  their  hands. 

"  He  that  loveth  his  son  causeth  him  oft  to  feel  the  rod,  that  he 
may  have  joy  of  him  in  the  end."  (Eccles.  xxx.  1.) 

"  He  that  spare th  his  rod  hateth  his  son."  (Prov.  xiii.  24.) 

"  The  rod  and  reproof  give  wisdom,  but  a  child  left  to  himself 
bringeth  his  mother  to  shame."  (Prov.  xxix.  15.)1 

1  The  worthy  Rollin  will  equally  tax  his  ingenuity  to  soften  the  most 
precise  texts  by  an  interpretation  inspired  by  his  love  of  children:  "The 


208  Port- Royal  Education. 


To  employ  Exhortations  rather  than  Threats  in  order  to  lead  them 
to  Piety  and  Virtue. 

What  a  man  does  against  his  will  and  by  a  sort  of  constraint 
not  only  is  not  praiseworthy,  but  cannot  even  be  lasting;  for 
what  is  forced  soon  returns  to  its  previous  state,  as  a  tree  that 
has  been  forcibly  bent  soon  returns  to  its  former  direction,  whereas 
what  is  done  from  free  choice  is  usually  stable  and  permanent. 

We  must,  then,  always  endeavour  to  render  virtue  lovable  in 
itself,  sometimes  by  praising  before  the  children1  those  who  are 
really  virtuous,  and  sometimes  by  making  them  understand  the 
shame  and  confusion  by  which  bad  actions  are  usually  followed. 

They  must  also  always  be  exhorted  to  look  to  God  rather  than 
man  in  all  their  actions,  and  to  fear  much  more  in  their  thoughts 
the  judgment  of  Him  who  penetrates  the  depths  of  the  heart  than 
men's  reproof  by  words. 

When  they  do  well  they  must  be  encouraged  to  do  better, 
because  not  to  advance  constantly  on  the  road  of  virtue  is  to 
recede ;  and  they  must  remember  this  proverb,  that  however  good 
a  horse  may  be,  he  always  needs  the  spur.  .  .  . 

To  add  Good  Examples  to  Good  Teaching. 

It  is  not  enough  to  give  children  good  instruction,  we  must  also 
endeavour  to  give  them  good  examples.  .  .  . 

Nothing  has  more  influence  on  the  mind,  and  especially  the 
mind  of  children,  who  notice  much  more  what  they  see  their 

Holy  Scripture,  by  these  and  other  similar  words,  means  perhaps  punishment 
in  general,  and  condemns  the  false  tenderness  and  blind  indulgence  of  parents. 
.  .  .  Supposing  it  necessary  to  take  the  word  rod  literally,  there  is  great 
appearance  that  this  chastisement  is  advised  for  those  hard,  gross,  un teach- 
able, and  intractable  characters  which  are  insensible  to  reprimands  or  honour. 
But  can  we  think  that  Scripture,  so  full  of  charity  and  mildness,  and  of 
compassion  for  weaknesses,  even  at  a  more  advanced  age,  means  that  children 
should  be  treated  harshly  whose  faults  often  spring  rather  from  thoughtless- 
ness than  perversity?"  (Traite  des  ttudes,  liv.  viii.) 

1  This  was  not  the  opinion  of  M.  de  Saci.  (See  p.  93.)  He  advises 
Fontaine  to  thank  God  in  secret  for  the  good  that  he  recognizes  in  children. 
Pascal,  who  laments  that  "  admiration  spoils  everything  in  children,"  states, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  "  the  children  of  Port-Royal,  to  whom  this  stimulus 
to  envy  and  glory  is  not  given,  fall  into  heedlessness."  (Pens&s,  ed.  Havet, 
p.  449.) 


Coustel:   Rules  for  Education.  209 

teachers  do  than  what  they  may  say  to  them,  and  can  have  only 
contempt  for  the  good  that  they  propose  when  their  actions  are 
not  conformable  to  their  words. 

And,  in  fact,  can  we  listen  to  a  man  who  does  not  listen  to 
himself?  And  have  we  reason  to  think  that  he  is  convinced 
of  the  truths  that  he  endeavours  to  make  others  believe,  when 
he  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  practise  them  ? x  .  .  . 

A  preceptor  should  be  to  his  children  like  clear  glass  and  like  a 
beautiful  mirror,  in  which  they  may  see  their  spots  and  imperfec- 
tions, or,  again,  like  a  rule,  which  corrects  by  its  straightness 
whatever  was  uneven  and  defective.  He  must  speak  to  them, 
I  say,  more  by  his  actions  than  by  his  words,  and  must  show 
them  the  way  in  which  they  should  go  more  by  acting  than 
talking. 

If  he  does  himself  what  he  intends  to  enjoin  on  those  under 
his  charge,  not  only  will  he  correct  their  faults,  but  also  he  will 
shield  himself  from  the  just  reproach  that  the  Apostle  addresses 
to  those  who  do  not  act  thus  :  "  Why  do  you  not  teach  yourselves, 
you  who  pretend  to  teach  others  ! " 

Now,  nothing  serves  a  teacher  to  set  a  good  example  so  much  as 
uniformity  of  conduct. 

Lay  down  for  yourselves,  then,  a  good  mode  of  life,  and  set 
yourselves  a  rule  to  follow,  said  Seneca ;  regulate  all  your  actions 
by  it,  for  irregularity  of  conduct  is  the  mark  of  an  inconstant 
mind  which  has  no  firm  foundation.  .  . 


1  Mme.  de  Main  tenon  sets  this  excellent  lesson  in  a  clearer  light  in  a 
letter  to  a  lady  of  Saint-Cyr :  "You  will  make  them  reasonable  only  by 
imparting  reason  to  them  by  your  discourses  and  by  your  example,  which 
will  be  still  more  efficacious  than  your  words.  They  will  be  very  nearly 
what  you  are  ;  if  you  are  sincere,  they  will  be  sincere  ;  if  you  act  uprightly, 
they  will  act  uprightly ;  if  you  are  remiss,  they  will  be  remiss  ;  if  you  are 
superficial,  they  will  be  superficial ;  if  you  act  otherwise  when  you  are  seen 
than  you  do  when  you  are  not  seen,  they  will  do  the  same  ;  if  you  are  in 
earnest,  they  will  be  in  earnest  in  the  things  you  give  them  to  do  ;  if  you 
hide  yourselves  from  your  superiors,  they  will  hide  themselves  from  you." 
(A  Mme.  de  la  Mairie,  1714.) 


2io  Port- Royal  Education. 


OF  CIVILITY  AND  POLITENESS  IN  CHILDREN. 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  do  good,  but  we  must  always  endeavour 
to  do  it  in  the  best  manner  possible.  .  .  .  And,  in  fact,  as  meats 
good  in  themselves  but  badly  seasoned  are  not  very  agreeable,  so  a 
good  action  awkwardly  done  cannot  be  pleasing. 

What  I  here  call  politeness  and  civility  is  an  easy,  open,  and 
becoming  manner ;  and  I  maintain  that,  in  order  to  acquire  it, 
not  only  is  it  necessary  to  learn  its  maxims  early,  but  to  put 
them  in  practice,  according  to  this  axiom  of  the  philosophers, 
that  things  that  are  learnt  for  use  are  best  learnt  by  use.  Now 
the  politeness  of  children  should  especially  appear  in  their 
deportment  and  their  behaviour  at  table  as  well  as  in  their 
conversation.1 

Of  the  Manner  in  which  they  should  Sit  and  Behave  at  Table. 

They  should  always  sit  upright,  without  moving  their  arms  and 
legs  about,  and,  if  possible,  without  inconveniencing  those  who 
are  near  them. 

It  is  very  impolite  to  be  constantly  looking  at  the  dishes,  and 
devouring  with  our  eyes  all  the  viands  that  are  served  up. 

You  must  not  put  your  hand  in  the  dish  first,  nor  show  signs  of 
impatience  before  you  are  served,  or  too  much  haste  and  eagerness 
in  eating  wrhat  has  been  given  you. 

Put  gently  on  your  plate  what  is  offered  you,  bowing  your  head 
slightly,  to  thank  him  who  serves  you,  without  taking  off  your 
Jiatj 2  unless  to  persons  who  are  of  higher  rank  than  yourself,  and 
foFwhom  you  are  bound  to  have  a  marked  respect. 

1  Coustel  justifies  himself   for  entering  into   details   that   may  appear 
trivial  by  this  judicious  saying   of  Quintilian :    "What   must   be   done 
deserves  to  be  learnt."     The  annexed  extract  on  behaviour  at  table  is  a  very 
curious  study  of  manners. 

2  La  Biensfance  de  la  conversation  entre  les  hommes,  published  at  Pont-a- 
Mousson  in   1618,  mentions  this  custom  of  wearing  the  hat  at  meals  : 
"When  you  are  at  table,  it  is  sufficient  to  make  a  slight  bow,  for  it  is  not 
seemly  to  imcover  at  table." 

Father  de  la  Salle  recommends  the  guests  to  remain  standing  and  un- 
covered until  grace  has  been  said,  and  not  to  put  on  their  hats  until  they 
are  seated,  and  the  most  distinguished  persons  have  put  on  theirs."  (Les 
flegles  de  la  bicnsdance  et  de  la  civilite'  chreticnne.) 


Coustel :    Civility  and  Politeness  in  Children.      2 1 1 

Never  refuse  what  is  offered,  for  this  would  be  a  tacit  reproach 
either  that  it  has  not  been  well  chosen  or  to  show  that  it  is  not  to 
your  taste. 

It  is  advantageous  to  habituate  yourself  early  to  cut  the  meat 
neatly,  to  present  it  gracefully,  and  even  to  learn  which  is  the 
best  part  of  a  capon,  a  partridge,  or  waterfowl. * 

If  you  may  take  the  liberty  of  putting  your  hand  in  the  dish, 
take  what  is  before  you,  without  seeking  right  and  left  what  may 
seem  to  you  better. 

If  there  is  a  nice  piece,  never  take  it  for  yourself,  but  present 
it  to  those  whom  you  have  invited,  or  who  are  the  most  dis- 
tinguished in  the  company. 

Keep  your  eyes  on  your  plate,  without  constantly  looking  over 
others  to  see  what  they  are  eating. 

Take  what  is  served  you  with  your  fork,  and  not  with  your 
fingers. 

Do  not  put  very  large  pieces  into  your  mouth  nor  inflate  your 
cheeks  in  eating,  as  if  you  were  blowing  the  fire. 
I     Do  not  break  your  bread  with  your  hand,  but  always  use  your 
jknife  to  cut  it. 

Masticate  the  meat  you  have  in  your  mouth  slowly;  this  con- 
tributes very  much  to  health,  for  the  second  digestion  does  not 
correct  the  imperfection  of  the  first. 

Never  dip  in  the  dish  a  morsel  you  have  already  put  in  your 
mouth. 

Avoid  as  much  as  possible  a  diversity  of  meats,  for  nothing 
ruins  the  stomach  so  much,  or  is  so  prejudicial  to  health. 

Never  begin  a  meal  by  drinking;  that  has  too  much  the 
appearance  of  the  drunkard,  who  drinks  more  by  habit  than 
necessity.  Never  be  the  first  to  drink.  Wipe  your  mouth,  and 
swallow  what  you  have  in  it  before  drinking. 

Always  put  water  in  your  wine.  Pure  wine  is  to  the  body 
what  oil  is  to  fire ;  for  it  inflames  it  more,  instead  of  moderating 
and  diminishing  the  heat  that  is  consuming  it. 

1  Father  de  la  Salle  enters  into  kitchen  details  on  the  different  meats, 
boiled  or  roast,  and  fish,  "in  order  that  you  may  not  take  the  best  parts 
for  yourself  (which  might  happen  by  mistake,  for  want  of  knowing),  and 
may  offer  them  seasonably  to  those  to  whom  it  is  fitting."  (CiviliM chrttienne, 
p.  107.)  Coustel,  a  few  lines  further  on,  gives  the  same  reason. 


212  Port- Royal  Education. 

If  anyone  does  you  the  honour  of  drinking  your  health, 
modestly  thank  him  who  does  so. 

Do  not  make  a  boast  of  drinking  to  excess ;  a  barrel  has  a 
much  greater  capacity  than  the  largest  stomach. 

The  custom  of  forcing  others  to  drink  the  healths  which  have 
been  proposed,  to  the  prejudice  of  their  own,  is  neither  honest 
nor  praiseworthy;  a  man  must  be  a  glutton  and  unmannerly  to 
do  so. 

\     Equals  do  not  offer  things  to  one  another,  presuming  to  do  so 
ps  attempting  to  take  the  upper  hand  and  act  the  host. 

It  is  showing  too  great  daintiness  to  complain  that  the  viands 
are  ill-cooked,  or  that  they  are  not  to  our  taste. 

If  the  company  remain  too  long  at  table  you  may  retire  quietly, 
after  saluting  them  in  a  civil  and  obliging  manner. 


OF  CONVERSATION. 

Conversation  must  not  be  judged  by  the  oddities  and  bad 
temper  of  certain  melancholy  persons,  but  by  the  general  feeling 
that  the  Author  of  Nature  has  imprinted  on  the  mind  of  all  men. 
God  did  not  give  them  the  use  of  speech  to  make  them  pass  their 
lives  in  the  deserts,  but  to  converse  with  one  another,  that  they 
may  learn  what  they  did  not  know,  and  may  perfect  themselves 
in  the  knowledge  of  what  they  already  know.  As,  then,  con- 
versation sharpens  the  wit,  forms  the  judgment,  makes  us  know 
ourselves,  and  not  have  a  blind  attachment  to  our  own  opinions, 
in  fine,  as  it  teaches  us  to  live  with  everybody  in  an  honest  and 
seemly  manner,  we  are  right  in  calling  it  the  school  of  wisdom  and 
the  teacher  of  civility.  We  may  say  that  it  is  certainly  very 
useful,  and  may  even  go  farther  and  maintain  that  it  is  necessary. 
And,  in  fact,  there  are  very  many  things  that  Jesus  Christ 
commands  in  the  gospel  that  can  only  be  done  by  conversing  with 
men,  as,  for  example,  consoling  the  afflicted,  instructing  the 
ignorant,  correcting  those  who  commit  faults,  and  setting  on  the 
right  road  those  who  have  strayed. 

Admitting,  then,  the  necessity  for  conversation,  it  may  be  asked 
here,  What  ought  to  be  its  qualities?  with  what  persons  should 
we  converse?  how  should  young  persons  conduct  themselves 


Coustel ':    Civility  and  Politeness  in  Children.      213 

in  it  l\  what  arc  the  principal  faults  to  be  avoided  ?  .  .  .  Oaths, 
blasphemy,  indecent  and  equivocal  words  should  be  banished 
from  it,  and,  in  a  word,  nothing  should  ever  be  said  that  may 
pain  the  listener  or  shame  the  speaker. 

It  should  be  very  circumspect.  Thus  it  is  ill  to  play  the 
cheerful  man  before  persons  who  are  afflicted  or  the  sad  with 
those  who  only  think  of  amusing  themselves.  .  .  . 

It  should  be  respectful  and  full  of  deference,  especially  towards 
women  and  the  aged,  to  whom  good  breeding  should  lead  us 
to  give  the  best  places.  .  .  . 

In  the  fourth  place  it  should  be  sincere;  for,  as  soon  as  we 
accustom  ourselves  to  disguises  and  deceit,  we  lose  all  influence, 
and  get  involved  in  many  awkward  affairs. 

In  fine,  it  should  be  charitable  towards  ourselves  and  towards 
others ;  towards  ourselves,  by  profiting  by  what  is  said ;  for  if  a 
learned  man  is  speaking  all  that  he  says  instructs,  and  if  a 
thoughtless  person  he  should  make  those  who  listen  to  him  more 
reticent,  in  order  not  to  commit  the  same  faults. 

It  is  also  necessary  in  conversation  to  be  charitable  towards 
others  by  falling  in  with  their  humour,  by  interpreting  favourably 
all  that  they  say,  by  overlooking  their  defects,  and,  in  fine, 
by  preventing  improper  talk  and  slander,  if  we  have  sufficient 
authority  for  that,  or,  at  least,  in  showing  by  our  coolness  and 
silence  that  we  will  take  no  part  in  it. 

It  may  be  asked  here  if  women's  conversation  is  advantageous 
to  young  men;  to  which  it  is  not  difficult  to  respond,  if  we 
follow  the  light  of  Christianity  rather  than  the  corrupt  maxims  of 
the  age.  .  .  .  There  is  danger,  no  doubt,  in  the  conversation  of 
women,  who  are  called,  on  this  subject,  the  snares  of  the  devil, 
and  the  net  in  which  those  who  are  not  on  their  guard  are 
caught.1  .  .  . 

To  show  here  that  young  men  seldom  think  of  forming  their 
minds  by  conversing  with  women,  and  of  learning,  as  they  say, 
politeness  and  civility,  they  do  not  usually  like  the  conversation 
of  those  who  are  somewhat  old,  although  their  seriousness  and 

1  Nicole  says,  not  very  gallantly :  "  Having  a  woman  for  adviser  is 
having  a  double  concupiscence."  (Essais  de  Morale,  t.  vi.  p.  266.)  This  was 
not  Franklin's  opinion. 


214  Port- Royal  Education. 

great  experience  might  be  more  useful  to  them;  but  they  like 
bodily  much  more  than  mental  beauty;  and  the  brightness  of 
a  young  face  has  more  charms  for  them  than  the  marks  of 
extraordinary  virtue  and  merit  in  an  old  person.  .  .  . 

It  is  necessary  to  become  acquainted  with  the  ceremonies  that 
are  practised  in  the  country  where  we  are.  I  mean  by  ceremonies 
the  outward  marks  of  honour  and  respect  that  are  paid  to  certain 
persons.  .  .  . 

Ceremonies  must  be  used  with  much  prudence  and  propriety, 
not  too  sparingly  nor  too  prodigally. 

To  use  none  is  boorish ;  to  use  them  through  interest  is 
disguise  and  flattery ;  to  use  them  with  persons  who  are  very 
busy  is  indiscreet ;  and  to  use  them  with  those  whom  we  do  not 
intend  to  oblige  is  an  insult. 

Useless  ceremonies  should  not  be  affected,  refusing,  for  instance, 
the  first  place  when  it  is  undoubtedly  our  due,  and  offering 
battle,  as  they  say,  in  order  not  to  enter  a  door  first. 

You  must  not  walk  about  when  the  others  are  sitting  down, 
nor  bite  your  nails  nor  pick  your  teeth  before  company,  thus 
showing  that  their  society  is  not  agreeable,  and  that  you  seek 
amusement  by  these  little  pastimes. 

When  you  are  seated  you  must  not  lean  upon  others  nor  turn 
your  back  to  them,  nor  stretch  out  your  arms  nor  make  un- 
becoming gesticulations;  such  liberties  are  only  allowable  in 
persons  of  much  higher  rank  than  the  others. 

It  is  a  fundamental  maxim  of  our  religion  always  to  treat 
others  as  we  wish  to  be  treated  ourselves.  Always  excuse,  then, 
the  faults  of  others,  and  put  a  good  construction  on  their  actions 
and  words.  Thus,  if  on  entering  someone  does  not  salute  you, 
do  not  say  that  he  despises  or  disdains  you ;  but  rather  suppose 
that  he  did  not  see  you,  or  that  his  mind  was  elsewhere  and 
occupied  with  something  else. 

Endeavour  to  keep  an  even  temper,  and  fall  in  with  the  temper 
of  others  when  it  is  not  in  sympathy  with  your  own. 

Complaisance  is  the  soul  of  society  and  the  seasoning  of  conver- 
sation. It  should,  then,  be  very  great  with  respect  to  everybody, 
yet  without  ever  making  us  approve  of  what  is  manifestly  unjust 
and  bad.  .  .  . 


Const  el :    Civility  and  Politeness  in  Children.      215 

Always  be  more  pleased  to  listen  to  what  others  say  than 
to  talk  yourself,  and  on  this  subject  remember  what  Plutarch 
says,  "  that  Numa  taught  the  Komans  to  reverence  more  than  any 
other  a  goddess  to  whom  he  gave  the  name  of  Tacita  (the 
Silent).  .  .  ." 

The  advantage  gained  by  silence  is  that  it  makes  those  who 
know  how  to  observe  it  pass  before  the  world  as  very  wise,  how- 
ever ignorant  and  stupid  they  may  be.1 

There  are  times  when  nothing  should  be  said,  there  are  others 
when  it  is  necessary  to  say  something ;  but  there  are  none  when  it 
is  necessary  to  say  all  that  we  know. 

Be  very  reserved  when  you  are  in  company  where  there  are 
persons  of  rank,  very  learned  men,  and  old  men  to  whom  age  has 
given  much  experience. 

When  you  take  upon  yourself  to  speak,  be  careful  of  these 
three  things :  of  what  you  speak,  before  whom  you  have  to  speak, 
how  you  ought  to  speak. 

Do  not  open  your  mouth  before  you  have  well  arranged  and 
digested  in  your  mind  what  you  have  to  say,2  lest  your  thoughts 
be  like  those  abortions  which  have  not  had  sufficient  time  to 
be  perfectly  formed ;  for  the  trouble  we  have  in  expressing  our- 
selves usually  comes  from  the  fact  that  we  have  not  thoroughly 
arranged  what  we  have  to  say ;  for  we  always  express  ourselves 
well  when  we  have  arranged  in  our  minds  what  we  wish  to 
say.  .  .  . 

Do  not  undertake  to  speak  of  things  which  are  above  your 
capacity,  and  only  speak  of  those  that  you  think  you  know  best 
with  great  moderation  and  reserve. 

If  you  wish  to  pass  for  an  able  man  strive  to  be  really  so ;  for 

1  Grimarest,  in  the  Life  of  Molitrc,  relates  a  very  amusing  scene.     Moliere 
and  Chapelle,   returning  by  water  from  Auteuil  to  Paris,  were  discussing 
about  Gassendi  and  Descartes  before  a  friar  minim  who  was  on  the  boat, 
and  the  two  speakers  took  him  for  judge.     The  friar  minim  only  replied  by 
"hum!  hum  I"  or  by  motions  of  his  head.     Our  philosophers  were  a  little 
confused  on   perceiving  a  little  later  by  his  wallet  that  he  was  a  serving 
brother,  and  quite  a  stranger  to   these  questions.      Moliere   then   said   to 
the  young  baron  who  accompanied  them,  "  See,  my  lad,  what  silence  does 
when  it  is  carefully  observed." 

2  " There  are  people,"  says  La  Bruyere  shrewdly,  "who  speak  a  moment 
before  they  have  thought."  (Caracteres,  ch.  iv.) 


216  Port- Royal  Education. 

time,  which  discovers  all,  will  show  you  such  as  you  are ;  and 
there  may  be  someone  in  the  company  who  will  perhaps  expose 
your  ignorance  to  your  mortification. 

If  an  opportunity  offers  of  telling  some  story,  come  to  the 
point  at  once,  without  stopping  to  make  a  long  and  tiresome  pre- 
face, and  always  use  in  telling  it  proper,  natural,  and  pleasing 
expressions.  .  .  . 

Always  endeavour  to  excuse  him  of  whom  evil  is  spoken  ;  and 
if  you  cannot  excuse  the  action  that  is  blamed,  excuse  at  least  its 
motive  by  saying  that  he  was  surprised,  and  that  he  did  not 
sufficiently  reflect.  If  you  cannot  excuse  the  motive,  attribute  his 
act  to  human  infirmity  and  the  strength  of  the  temptation  which 
would  very  likely  have  carried  away  others  if  they  had  been  in 
the  same  position  as  he. 

If  anyone  says  something  indecent,  either  pretend  not  to  have 
heard  it,  or  show  by  your  coolness  or  silence  that  you  are 
unwilling  to  take  any  part  in  it. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  company  to  remain  always  silent  nor 
to  be  continually  talking ;  the  first  would  be  a  mark  of  stupidity 
or  contempt,  and  the  other  would  show  a  too  great  assumption 
of  capacity.  It  is  right  for  everyone  to  pay  his  share  as  much 
for  food  for  the  mind  as  for  food  for  the  body. 

Conversation  should  always  be  adapted  to  the  places  and 
the  persons  with  whom  we  are.  Thus  it  is  ungraceful  to  play 
the  Cato1  before  women,  or  the  preacher  before  people  who  are 
thinking  only  of  amusing  themselves. 

Points  of  theology  or  questions  difficult  to  resolve  should  not 
be  brought  forward  at  table,  but  only  those  things  on  which  each 
may  express  his  ideas  without  too  much  concentration  of 
mind.  .  .  . 

If  a  man  has  advanced  an  extravagant  or  pernicious  opinion 
it  is  useful  and  even  praiseworthy  for  him  to  change  it ;  whereas 
it  would  be  a  shameful  thing  to  change  an  opinion  that  is  just 
and  true.  It  is  only  persons  of  understanding  and  judgment, 
says  St.  Augustine,  who  recall  things  ill  said;  and  a  man  is 

1  Cato  the  Censor  (233-183  B.C.),  celebrated  for  his  seventy  against  luxury, 
especially  that  of  women. 


Coustel :    Civility  and  Politeness  in  Children.      217 

usually  more  admired  when  he  becomes,  against  himself,  the  censor 
of  an  opinion  advanced  out  of  season  than  if  he  had  never  held 
it,  or  if  he  had  corrected  another.  .  .  . 

Jokers,  boasters,  and  great  talkers  are  not  usually  liked. 

Here,  however,  innocent  joking  must  be  distinguished  from  that 
which  is  altogether  odious. 

For  there  is  joking  that  is  not  only  permissible  but  which 
even  enlivens  conversation,  and,  therefore,  those  who  succeed  in 
it  are  always  well  received.  Now  I  call  a  joke  a  sensible  thing 
said  to  the  point,  and  which  amuses.  For  this  it  should  be  : — 

1.  Subtle  and  refined,  for   both  the  joke  and   the  joker  are 
laughed  at  when  it  is  not  so. 

2.  The  things  that  are  joked  upon  should  not  be  serious  or 
criminal,  for  there  is  no  subject  for  joking  when  there  is  no 
subject  for  laughing. 

3.  Great  defects  of   body  or  mind   should  not  be   taken   as 
subjects  for  it.     Man  did   not  make   himself;    God  made  him 
as  he  is;  it  is  upon  Him  then  that  the  jokes  fall. 

4.  Joking  must  be  used  with  discretion ;  thus  we  should  never 
joke  about  the  powerful. 

5.  We  should  never  joke  about  the  wretched,  because  they  are 
worthy  of  compassion. 

In  fine,  joking  should  be  used  in  moderation,  for  excess  is 
always  blamable,  and  there  is  no  pleasure  in  driving  people  to 
extremes. 

I  do  not  speak  here  of  those  whose  jokes  are  stinging,  and 
who  do  not  care  if  they  give  pain  and  trouble  to  others,  provided 
that  they  show  themselves  off  and  acquire  the  reputation  for 
wit.  Nothing  lowers  and  makes  a  young  man  disliked  more  than 
that. 

Boasters,  again,  are  very  disagreeable  persons  in  conversation, 
for  they  have  always  in  their  mouths  the  names  of  their  ancestors 
and  their  estates,  and  talk  only  of  their  own  clever  schemes. 

Be  afraid  of  pleasing  yourself,  lest  you  please  yourself  alone. 
It  is  the  same  with  the  good  qualities  of  our  minds  as  with  the 
nudity  of  our  bodies.  We  should  always  hide  them  from  our 
servants,  and  modesty  does  not  permit  us  to  dwell  on  them. 

There  are  also  odd  people  who  love  only  themselves,  whom 


2i8  Port- Royal  Education. 

everything  that  others  say  displeases,   and   who   think  nothing 
well  done  which  they  do  not  do  themselves. 

Obstinate  and  opjninnfl.f.p.fl  persons  are  also  very  disagreeable. 

When  things  are  oi  small  consequence  we  should  not  wish  to 
carry  them  with  a  high  hand ;  victory  is  always  dangerous  in  this 
sort  of  encounters,  since  we  often  lose  a  good  friend  for  a  thing  of 
no  value.     Besides,  we  show  our  bad  humour  in  good  company. 
(Coustel,  Regies  de  ^education  des  enfants.) 


ON  THE  PERSECUTIONS  OF  PORT -ROYAL.1 

.  .  .  There  must  be  a  strange  confusion  in  the  affairs  of  this 
world,  since  we  see  those  who  may  certainly  be  said  to  have  done 
some  service  to  the  Church  persecuted,  ill-treated,  calumniated, 
and  oppressed  under  the  fictitious  name  of  an  imaginary  sect,  and 
scarcely  daring  to  defend  themselves  against  the  most  unjust  and 
outrageous  accusations ;  and  those,  on  the  contrary,  who  dishonour 
the  Church  by  their  ignorance  and  passion,  as  M.  Mallet  has  done, 
held  in  honour  and  credit,  and  not  only  free  from  fear  of  punish- 
ment for  their  excesses,  but  making  themselves  feared,  through  the 
power  that  is  given  them,  by  all  those  whom  they  consider  their 
enemies,  because  they  are  the  enemies  of  their  errors,  their 
extravagances,  and  their  falsehoods. 

Nevertheless,  after  all,  we  have  no  reason  to  be  astonished  at 
this  conduct.  God  permits  it,  God  ordains  it,  for  the  good  of 
His  elect.  And,  considering  it  in  this  light,  we  should  not  only 
submit  to  it,  but  adore  and  kiss  the  hand  which  strikes  us.  I 
adore  the  infinite  variety  of  Thy  commands,  0  my  God,  ever  just, 
ever  holy  in  the  government  of  Thy  creatures,  both  old  and  new, 
that  is  to  say,  the  world  and  the  Church. 

1  "We  can  scarcely  read  now  those  great  volumes  of  heavy  discussion. 
Their  conclusion  alone  need  be  noticed  for  its  eloquence  and  sentiment.  It 
is  said  that  the  Chancellor  Le  Tellier  could  never  tire  of  reading  these 
pages  nor  of  making  his  friends  read  them ;  his  enthusiasm,  however, 
did  not  lead  him  so  far  as  to  repeat  anything  of  them  to  the  king. 
Racine,  it  is  said,  re-read  them  with  a  lively  admiration  which  I  wish 
we  could  share  for  the  moral  beauty  of  it!"  (SAINTE-BEUVE, 'Port-Royal, 
t.  v.  p.  297.) 


Arnauld:    Persecutions  of  Port- Royal.  219 

It  would  be  showing  little  faith  in  Thy  promises  to  be  moved 
by  what  is  passing  in  these  days  of  clouds  and  darkness,  in  diebus 
nulis  et  caliyinis,  as  Thou  in  Thy  Scriptures  callest  these  times  of 
trouble  and  tempest,  in  which  it  seemeth  that  Thou  abandonest 
innocence  to  the  rage  of  the  wicked,  and  takest  pleasure  in 
permitting  vice,  injustice,  and  violence  to  triumph.  What,  after 
all,  can  they  do  to  those  who  put  their  confidence  only  in  Thee, 
and  only  love  eternal  things'?1 

They  deceive  princes,  and  cause  them  to  take  their  most  faithful 
servants  for  enemies.  But  the  heart  of  kings  is  in  Thy  hands,  and 
Thou  canst  change  it  in  a  moment  by  discovering  what  is  hidden 
from  them,  and  removing  the  false  impressions  that  have  been 
given  them.  If  it  do  not  please  Thee  to  dissipate  these  clouds, 
should  it  not  suffice  Thy  servants  that  the  depths  of  their  hearts 
are  known  to  Thee,  waiting  till  Thou  give  grace  to  princes,  who 
are  incited  against  them,  to  penetrate  the  artifices  by  which  they 
are  prejudiced,  and  to  use  their  power  only  for  the  punishment 
of  the  wicked  and  the  protection  of  the  good,  for  it  is  for  this 
only  that  Thou  hast  given  it  to  them,  as  Thy  apostles  declare. 

In  the  meanwhile  they  are  proscribed,  banished,  and  deprived 
of  liberty.  Can  a  Christian,  to  whom  all  the  earth  is  a  place  of 
exile  and  a  prison,  be  much  troubled  by  a  change  of  dungeon? 
Thou  art  found  everywhere,  0  my  God.  Even  loaded  with  fetters, 
those  who  possess  Thee  are  more  free  than  kings.  No  prison  is 
to  be  dreaded  but  that  of  a  soul  whose  vices  and  passions  hold  it 
confined  arid  prevent  it  enjoying  the  liberty  of  the  children  of 
God,  and  this  it  was  that  made  one  of  Thy  saints2  say  that  the 
conscience  of  a  wicked  man  is  full  of  darkness,  more  fatal  and 
more  horrible,  not  only  than  all  prisons,  but  even  than  hell  itself. 

But  we  may  die  from  the  fatigues  and  labours  of  a  wandering 
life.  Should  we  avoid  it  if  we  were  more  at  ease1?  A  little 
sooner,  a  little  later,  what  is  that  when  compared  with  eternity  1 

1  This  sentiment  of  confidence  also  greatly  animated  the  Mother  Angelique 
Arnauld  when  she  supported  the  courage  of  her  nuns :  "  What !  are  we 
weeping  here  ?  Come,  my  children,  what  is  this  ?  Have  you  no  faith  ?  At 
what  are  you  surprised  ?  What  !  men  are  bestirring  themsel  ves  ;  well !  they 
are  flies  that  make  a  little  noise  when  they  fly.  Do  you  trust  in  God  and  yet 
fear  ?  Believe  me,  fear  Him  alone,  and  all  will  be  well." 

a  Saint  Augustine. 


22O  Port- Royal  Education. 

Thou  hast  numbered  our  days;  we  came  into  the  world  when 
Thou  wouldest,  and  go  from  it  when  it  pleaseth  Thee.  The  evils 
of  this  world  affright  us  when  they  are  seen  from  afar ;  we  grow 
accustomed  to  them  when  they  are  present,  and  Thy  grace  renders 
all  things  endurable ;  and  besides,  they  are  always  less  than  we 
deserve  for  our  sins.  Thou  hast  taught  us  by  Thine  apostle  that 
all  who  serve  Thee  should  be  willing  to  say  like  him  :  /  know  both 
how  to  be  abased,  and  I  know  how  to  abound :  everywhere  and  in 
all  things  I  am  instructed,  both  to  be  full  and  to  be  hungry,  both  to 
abound  and  to  suffer  need.  I  can  do  all  things  through  Him  who 
strengtheneth  me. 

But  how  far  are  we  still  removed  from  the  state  of  those  of 
whom  the  same  apostle  says :  they  were  destitute,  afflicted,  tor- 
mented, of  whom  the  world  was  not  worthy,  wandering  in  the 
deserts  and  on  the  mountains,  and  hiding  in  dens  and  caves  of 
the  earth! 

We  have  but  to  acknowledge  Thy  bounty,  0  Lord,  who  hast 
condescended  to  treat  as  weak  those  whom  Thou  knowest  to  have 
yet  not  much  strength.  Thou  fulfillest  the  promises  of  Thy 
Gospel,  and  givest  them,  in  place  of  what  they  have  left  for  love 
of  Thee,  fathers,  mothers,  brethren,  and  sisters,  in  whom  Thou 
breathest  a  charity  so  tender  towards  those  whom  they  regard  as 
suffering  for  the  truth,  and  so  great  diligence  in  supplying  all  their 
needs,  that  by  singular  goodness  Thou  changest  the  cross  that 
Thou  layest  upon  them  into  sweetness  and  consolation.  But  they 
trust  in  Thy  mercy  that  if  Thou  preparest  for  them  harder  trials 
Thou  wilt  also  give  them  more  grace  and  a  greater  abundance  of 
Thy  Spirit  to  support  them  as  true  Christians.  This  is  the  sole 
foundation  of  their  confidence ;  for  they  know  well  that  we  can 
do  nothing  without  Thee,  and  that  however  persuaded  we  may 
be  of  the  truths  that  Thou  teachest  us,  they  are  only  practised 
when  Thou  makest  them  pass  from  the  mind  to  the  heart,  and 
that  Thou  fulfillest  that  which  one  of  Thy  saints  has  said,  that 
Thou  alone  settest  the  will  to  the  good  work,  and  removest  the 
difficulties  to  make  it  easy  for  the  will.  ...  I  am  ready  then, 
0  my  God,  to  follow  Thee  wherever  it  shall  please  Thee  to  lead 
me ;  and  though  I  walk  through  the  shadow  of  death,  I  will  fear 
nothing  while  Thou  leadest  me  by  the  hand.  On  this  hope  I  rest, 


Mere  Agnes :    Constitutions  of  St.-Sacrement.      221 

and  shall  await  with  patience  until,  being  softened  by  the  prayers 
of  so  many  good  men,  Thou  restore  to  Thy  Church  the  tranquillity 
that  she  cannot  enjoy  unless  Thou  quellest,  by  the  authority  of 
Thy  ministers,  the  stormy  winds  of  human  opinions  that  strive  to 
raise  themselves  above  the  truths  of  Thy  Gospel,  and  until  Thou 
appease  by  Thy  Word  the  storms  that  carnal  men  raise  when  they 
are  troubled  in  the  right  they  think  they  have  to  live  as  heathens 
and  none  the  less  to  expect  the  rewards  of  the  other  life,  which 
Thou  hast  only  promised  to  true  Christians.1 

(Arnauld,  GEuvres,  t.  vii.  p.  902.) 

THE  CONSTITUTIONS  OF  THE  MONASTERY  OF  PORT- 
ROYAL  DU  SAINT-SACREMENT.2 

Of  the  Instruction  of  the  Girls? 

Girls  may  be  received  in  the  monastery  for  instruction  in  the 
fear  of  God  during  several  years,  but  not  for  one  year  only, 
because  that  is  not  sufficient  to  form  them  in  good  morals 
according  to  the  rules  of  Christianity. 

Those  only  will  be  received  whose  parents  desire  them  to  be 
instructed  in  this  way,  and  who  offer  them  to  God  without  an 
expressed  desire  for  them  to  be  nuns  or  lay  persons,  but  as  it  may 
please  God  to  ordain. 

The  girls  shall  be  in  a  department  separate  from  the  nuns,  with 
a  mistress  to  instruct  them  in  virtue,  to  whom  assistants  will  be 
given  to  instruct  them  in  reading,  writing,  needlework,  and  other 
useful  things,  and  not  those  which  only  minister  to  vanity. 

1  Many  men  have  spoken  of  their  misfortunes,  their  unmerited  troubles, 
and  their  noble  poverty,  and  have  even  turned  them  to  account  to  make  an 
ostentatious  display.     What  renders  the  words  which  we  have  just   read 
really  noteworthy  is  that  there  is  not  a  syllable  that  is  not  sincere,  that 
Arnauld  says  nothing  more  than  he  feels  and  is  ready  to  do  on  the  instant ; 
the  character  of  the  writer  confirms  and  completes  the  eloquence.     I  have 
been  obliged  to  quote  the  whole  passage,  which  was  formerly  celebrated.     It 
is  classic  in  the  history  of  the  exiled  Arnauld.    (SAINTE-BEUVE,  Port-Royal, 
t.  v.  p.  300.) 

2  "  The  Constitutions  of  the  monastery  of  Port-Royal  du  Saint-Sacrement, 
which  are  the  result  of  the  instructions  of  M.  de  Saint-Cyran,  were  written 
by  the  Mother  Agnes  (at  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  the  Institut  du  Saint- 
Sacrement  in  1647),  after  having  been  long  practised.     They  were  printed  for 
the  first  time  in  1666."  (Me'moires  de  Lancelot,  t.  i.  p.  423.) 

3  See  Introduction,  p.  46. 


222  Port- Royal  Education. 

They  will  wear  the  novices'  dress ;  nevertheless,  they  shall  not 
be  compelled  to  do  so  at  first,  if  they  show  any  dislike  to  it,  until 
familiarity  and  the  sight  of  their  companions  make  them  desire  it. 
If  anyone  persists  in  not  wishing  it,  she  shall  wear  secular  dress, 
but  not  silk,  and  without  lace,  in  order  that  the  others  may  not 
envy  her. 

They  shall  sing  in  the  choir  at  certain  hours  when  they  shall  be 
of  age  to  do  so,  and  demand  it ;  as  also  in  the  refectory,  where 
they  shall  sit  at  a  separate  table  with  their  mistress. 

No  more  than  twelve  girls,  under  ten  years  of  age,  will  be 
received,  lest  the  charity  that  the  sisters  show  in  that  be  preju- 
dicial to  them,  by  giving  them  too  much  occupation,  and  with- 
drawing them  from  their  other  duties ;  and  also  that  they  may 
fulfil  their  duties  more  perfectly,  without  failing  in  any  attentions 
necessary  to  their  good  education. 

They  may  be  kept  until  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  although  they 
do  not  wish  to  be  nuns,  provided  that  they  are  docile  and  modest, 
that  they  take  no  liberties,  and  profit  by  the  instruction  given 
them,  confirming  themselves  more  and  more  in  Christian  virtue. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  they  have  a  vain  and  worldly  temper,  they 
shall  be  promptly  dismissed,  at  any  age,  lest  they  corrupt  the  rest. 

If  one  had  lost  her  mother,  and  it  were  beneficial  for  her  to 
remain  after  the  age  of  sixteen,  permission  may  be  asked  of 
the  superior  to  keep  her,  and  action  will  be  taken  as  he  shall 
think  fit. 

The  number  of  junior  girls  shall  be  at  the  most  twelve,  as  we 
have  said;  nevertheless,  when  they  have  passed  the  age  of  ten 
years  they  shall  not  be  considered  juniors,  and  younger  girls  may 
be  taken  in  their  place,  although  they  still  live  in  the  monastery, 
because  there  is  much  less  care  and  work  with  them  than  with  the 
younger. 

The  nuns  shall  not  ask  to  receive  girls,  nor  use  any  influence 
with  the  parents  to  make  them  give  them,  not  even  with  those 
who  are  related  to  them;  this  should  proceed  from  their  own 
proper  impulse,  and  a  sincere  desire  for  the  good  education  of 
their  children. 

Girls  of  three  or  four  years  of  age,  who  have  no  mother,  will 
be  more  easily  and  willingly  received,  and  all  necessary  assistance 


Mere  Agnes :    Constitutions  of  St.-Sacrement.      223 

will  be  affectionately  given  them  in  their  helplessness,  considering 
in  this  that  the  charity  is  so  much  greater  as  these  young  orphans 
are  sometimes  badly  brought  up,  having  no  mother  to  watch  over 
them. 

And  let  not  the  sisters  think  this  an  occupation  ill-fitted  for 
their  position,  namely,  to  undertake  the  bringing-up  of  children 
who  are  not  yet  capable  of  receiving  any  instruction  for  their 
salvation,  since  in  that  they  imitate  God  Himself,  who  first 
formed  the  body  of  the  first  man,  into  which  He  then  inspired 
the  breath  of  life. 

Let  them  take,  then,  for  their  share  the  nourishment  of  their 
small  bodies  with  all  necessary  care,  until  their  age  is  fitted  for 
the  infusion  of  grace,  by  this  means  becoming  like  the  mothers 
of  these  children,  which  will  make  their  virginity  fruitful  before 
God,  whose  spouses  they  are,  as  He  is  the  Father  of  souls  and 
spirits  according  to  St.  Paul. 

The  sisters  who  shall  be  employed  in  this  duty  having  under- 
taken, as  has  been  said,  a  work  of  charity,  should  consider  that 
it  is  at  the  same  time  an  exercise  of  patience,  there  being  much 
to  suffer  from  these  little  creatures,  and  a  great  restraint  with 
them. 

Let  them  not  complain  of  either,  but  make  themselves,  for  the 
love  of  Christ,  who  became  a  child  for  us,  the  servants  of  these 
children  in  whom  He  Himself  dwells,  humbling  Himself  in  their 
weaknesses.  Let  them  also  bear  with  their  little  tempers,  which 
are  sometimes  very  tiresome.  Let  them  never  reprove  them  by  a 
movement  of  anger,  but  let  them  suspend  punishment  until  their 
emotion  has  passed,  and  that  the  children  themselves  may  think 
that  they  do  not  love  them  less  when  they  punish  than  when  they 
caress  them. 

The  mistresses  will  take  great  care  not  to  be  partial  towards  the 
children,  not  loving  more  those  who  are  more  agreeable  and  pretty, 
in  order  not  to  make  the  others  jealous.  Let  them  not  amuse 
themselves  by  playing  with  them  more  than  is  necessary  for  their 
diversion,  while  they  are  still  incapable  of  joining  the  other  girls, 
nor  permit  the  children  to  caress  them  too  much,  nor  attach  them- 
selves too  much  to  them,  which  would  make  them  ill-humoured 
with  others  who  might  be  given  to  them. 


224  Port- Royal  Education. 

They  must  only  gain  their  affections  in  so  far  as  they  are  their 
mistresses,  and  not  as  private  persons.  And  although  children  are 
not  able  to  make  this  distinction,  the  mistresses  should  do  so,  and 
oblige  the  children  to  give  as  much  to  one  of  the  mistresses  as  to 
another.  For  example,  if  a  child  would  not  obey  one  of  the 
mistresses  because  she  liked  her  less,  the  other  mistress,  instead 
of  being  gratified  that  this  child  liked  her  more,  should  show 
severity,  and  make  her  give  her  companion  the  obedience  which 
is  due  to  her.1  And  as  a  proof  that  the  sisters  do  not  wish  to 
be  loved  by  the  children,  except  for  the  good  of  the  children 
themselves,  when  they  are  removed  from  this  office  they  will 
no  longer  caress  them  when  they  meet  them  any  more  than  the 
other  sisters  do,  who  should  never  so  amuse  themselves,  even  if 
they  should  be  their  relations,  except  in  so  far  as  the  mother  should 
think  convenient,  in  order  to  accustom  the  children  on  their  first 
entrance,  or  under  some  special  circumstances.  With  these 
exceptions,  they  will  not  show  any  tenderness  they  may  feel 
for  them,  and  they  will  make  a  sacrifice  of  it  to  God,  to  obtain 
from  His  goodness  that  these  children  may  benefit  by  the  good 
education  that  will  be  given  them. 

When  the  mistresses  take  the  children  to  the  parlour  they  will 
not  exhibit  a  too  marked  affection  for  them  before  the  parents ; 
but  only  show  that  they  love  them  so  far  as  they  are  obliged,  and 
that  they  take  the  greatest  possible  care  of  them.  They  will  not 
praise  the  children  too  much,  if  some  were  very  pretty,  but  will 
simply  say  that  they  are  very  docile,  or  something  of  the  sort. 
They  will  not  blame  them  for  their  faults  nor  accuse  them  of 
anything,  unless  the  mother  has  expressly  told  them  to  do  so ;  if 
they  are  questioned  to  know  if  they  are  bad  or  tiresome,  they  will 
say  that  much  still  remains  to  be  done,  without  showing  that  they 
are  wearied  or  disgusted  with  it,  in  order  not  to  give  pain  to  the 

1  Mme.  de  Maintenon  gives  the  same  recommendation  to  the  Ladies  of 
Saint-Cyr,  but  with  less  measure  and  accuracy  :  * '  If  the  girls  carry 
flattery  so  far  as  to  give  you  to  understand  that  they  like  you  more  than 
they  like  the  others,  show  such  a  profound  contempt  for  this  baseness,  and 
so  great  a  desire  that  your  sisters  may  be  not  less  esteemed  and  loved  than 
yourself,  that  they  may  understand  that  you  are  far  from  taking  pleasure  in 
their  discourse.  It  would  be  very  wrong  to  let  them  perceive  that  you  had 
this  weakness."  (Entretiens,  1703.) 


Mere  Agnes:   Constitutions  of  St.-Sacrement.       225 

parents.  They  will  ask  nothing  for  the  children  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  mother,  not  even  toys,  nor  books,  nor  anything 
else,  as  much  not  to  importune  the  parents  as  not  to  give  occasion 
for  jealousy  to  the  others,  to  whom  nothing  will  be  given.  And 
for  this  reason  it  would  be  desirable  that  they  were  all  equal ; l 
therefore  we  shall  continue,  as  heretofore,  to  undertake  their 
maintenance  in  order  to  avoid  the  inequality  that  is  found 
among  their  parents,  some  of  whom  would  give  liberally  and 
others  would  withhold  what  would  be  necessary  for  them,  which 
would  make  the  former  proud  and  give  pain  to  the  others ;  this  is 
avoided  by  treating  them  almost  all  equally,  so  far  as  discretion 
permits. 

The  junior  girls  shall  not  be  left  in  the  parlour  alone  when  they 
are  very  young,  nor  when  they  are  older,  unless  with  their  father 
and  mother,  if  they  desire  it,  and  only  for  a  very  short  time. 

The  very  young  children  should  never  be  lost  sight  of,  lest  they 
fall  and  hurt  themselves ;  they  will  not  even  be  allowed  to  play 
together  in  a  remote  part  of  their  room,  but  will  be  constantly 
watched,  to  correct  them  in  the  small  irregularities  they  may 
commit. 

The  senior  girls  shall  not  be  exempt  from  this  supervision ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  inconveniences  may  be  greater ;  therefore  equal 
or  greater  care  will  be  taken  that  they  shall  not  be  left  without  a 
person  to  take  charge  of  them. 

They  are  not  to  be  allowed  to  whisper  together,  however  little. 
One  of  the  mistresses  is  to  sleep  in  their  room,  and  in  going 
through  the  monastery  to  the  choir  and  the  refectory,  they  are 
always  to  be  conducted,  care  being  taken  that  they  do  not  go 
together.  In  fine,  constant  attention  must  be  given  to  remove 
from  them,  as  far  as  possible,  all  occasions  of  doing  harm  to  one 
another,  which  is  usually  what  most  corrupts  the  young.  .  .  . 

The  sisters  who  shall  be  employed  in  the  care  of  the  children 

1  It  was  unavoidable  to  make  some  exception  in  an  age  when  ranks  were  so 
distinct.  We  see  in  Leclerc  that  Mile.  d'Elbceuf,  who  entered  Port-Royal  at 
the  age  of  nine  years,  was  the  object  of  special  care  in  the  boarders'  room  ;  the 
Mother  Angelique  had  a  small  space  divided  off  where  she  slept.  "As  to 
food,  she  was  served  first,  and  her  ordinary  fare  was  also  different.  ...  At 
thirteen  she  had  a  room  to  herself  and  a  sister  to  wait  on  her.  ..."  (Vies 
inter  essantes,  t.  iii.  p,  183.) 

Q 


226  Port-Royal  Education. 

shall  act,  as  has  been  said,  with  great  affection  and  fidelity,  and  at 
the  same  time  great  indifference,  dreadiog  this  charge  on  account 
of  the  many  opportunities  it  gives  of  committing  errors,  of 
diverting  themselves  too  much,  and  of  losing  the  spirit  of 
meditation,  which  it  is  not  easy  to  preserve  in  such  an  important 
occupation ;  if,  nevertheless,  obedience  retains  them  in  it,  let 
them  trust  that  God  will  support  them,  and  that  the  charity 
which  necessarily  accompanies  this  duty  will  cover  their  faults. 
Let  them  know  also,  for  their  consolation,  that  in  taking  care 
to  bring  up  these  children  well,  they  are  recalling  before  God  the 
years  of  their  own  childhood  and  youth,  which  they  perhaps 
employed  ill  for  want  of  a  similar  education. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  CHILDREN  OF  PORT-ROYAL. 

Advertisement. 

Although  this  regulation  for  children  is  not  a  mere  fancy,  but 
has  been  drawn  up  on  what  has  been  practised  at  Port-Royal  des 
Champs  during  many  years,  it  must,  nevertheless,  be  admitted 
that,  for  what  is  external,  it  would  not  always  be  easy  nor  even 
useful  to  put  it  in  practice  with  all  its  severity.  For  it  may  be 
that  all  the  children  are  not  capable  of  such  strict  silence  and  so 
strained  a  life  without  being  depressed  and  wearied,  which  must 
be  avoided  above  all  things,  and  that  all  mistresses  cannot 
keep  them  under  such  exact  discipline,  gaining  at  the  same  time 
their  affection  and  love,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to 
succeed  in  their  education.  It  is  the  part  of  prudence,  then,  to 
moderate  all  these  things,  and,  according  to  the  saying  of  a  pope, 
to  join  the  strength  which  retains  the  children  without  repelling 
them  to  a  gentleness  tljk  wins  them  without  enervating  them : 
Sit  rigor,  sed  non  exasp^j^  ;  sit  amor,  sed  non  emolliens. 

Regulation  for  the  Children. 
To  MONSIEUR  SINGLIN,  APRIL  15,  1657. 

I  humbly  beg  your  pardon  for  having  so  long  delayed  to  give 
you  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  I  act  with  children.1 

1  Jacqueline  Pascal,  younger  sister  of  Pascal,  born  in  1625,  retired  from 
the  world  in  which  she  had  early  shone  by  her  wit  and  a  certain  poetic 


Pascal:    The  Children  of  Port-Royal.  227 

What  prevented  me  doing  so  from  the  first  word  you  said  to 
me  about  it  was,  that  I  thought  you  asked  me  to  set  down  in 
writing  how  they  ought  to  be  treated,  which  I  did  not  think 
myself  able  to  undertake  without  great  temerity,  having  so  little 
knowledge  for  so  difficult  an  employment.  For  I  can  assure  you 
that  obedience  alone  can  make  me  do  the  least  thing  in  it,  and 
if  I  do  not  spoil  all,  it  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  efficacity  of  the 
words  of  our  mother,  who  told  me,  when  giving  me  the  charge, 
not  to  be  anxious  about  anything,  and  God  would  do  all.  This 
so  appeased  the  trouble  in  which  my  impotence  had  put  me,  that 
I  remained  full  of  confidence  and  with  as  much  tranquillity  as 
if  God  Himself  had  given  me  this  promise,  and  I  acknowledge 
to  my  confusion  that,  when  I  look  at  myself  and  fall  into 
despondency,  as  you  know  I  do  very  often,  these  words  alone, 
God  will  do  all,  repeated  with  confidence,  restore  peace  to  my 
mind.  But  what  removed  my  trouble  was  that  you  told  me 
afterwards  that  you  did  not  ask  me  to  write  how  they  should 
be  treated,  but  only  how  I  treated  them,  in  order  to  notice 
the  faults  that  I  commit,  which,  not  only  destroy  what  God 
does  in  it  through  me,  but  even  place  great  obstacles  to  the  grace 
that  He  puts  in  these  souls.  .  .  . 

I,  In  what  spirit  we  should  render  service  to  the  children. 
Union  of  the  mistresses.  Some  general  advice  for  their  conduct, 
chiefly  towards  the  younger  children. 

1.  I  think,  then,  that  to  be  useful  to  the  children,  we  should 
never  speak  to  them,  nor  act  for  their  good,  without  looking 
to  God  and  asking  His  grace,  desiring  to  take  in  Him  all  that 
is  needful  to  instruct  them  in  His  fear. 

2.  We   should  have   great   charity  and  tenderness  for  them, 
neglecting  them  in  nothing  whatever,  either  spiritual  or  bodily, 
showing  them  upon  every  occasion  that  we  set  ourselves  no  limits 

talent,  and  entered  Port-Royal  in  1652,  where  she  took  the  name  of  sister 
Sainte-Euphemie.  From  1657  to  1659  she  had  charge  of  the  education  of 
the  children,  and,  in  virtue  of  this,  drew  up  the  annexed  regulation.  She 
was  afterwards  sent  to  Port-Royal  des  Champs,  as  sub-prioress,  to  direct  the 
novices.  She  died  in  1661  from  sorrow  and  remorse  at  having  signed  the 
formulary  against  her  conscience  in  deference  to  the  authority  of  Arnauld. 
M.  Cousin  has  devoted  a  volume  full  of  interest  to  this  distinguished 


228  Port-Royal  Education. 

for  their  service,  and  that  we  do  it  with  affection  and  with  all  our 
heart,  because  they  are  children  of  God,  and  that  we  feel  ourselves 
obliged  to  spare  nothing  to  render  them  worthy  of  this  sacred 
title. 

3.  It  is  very  necessary  to  devote  ourselves  to  them  without 
reserve    and    not   to   leave   their   quarters   without   unavoidable 
necessity,  in  order  to  be  always  present  in  the  room  where  they 
are  working,  if   we  are  not  talking  to  them  or  visiting   them 
when  they  are  ill  or  employed  in  other  things  which   concern 
them. 

4.  No  difficulty  should  be  made  in  missing  all  the  service  for 
this,  unless  the  elder  children  are  present  at  it.     The  constant 
care  of  the  children  is  of  such  importance,  that  we  should  prefer 

Jhisjiuty  to  all  others,1  when  obedience  lays  it  on  us,  and  much 
more  than  our  own  private  gratification,  even  when  it  concerns 
spiritual  things.  The  charity  with  which  all  the  services  which 
are  useful  to  them  will  be  given,  will  cover  not  only  many  of  our 
faults,  but  will  take  the  place  of  many  things  that  we  think  would 
be  useful  for  our  own  perfection. 

5.  There  will  be  a  sister  on  whom  we  can  rely,  without  in  any 
way  relieving  us  of   our  duty.     This  sister  who  will  be  given 
us   should  be   attached,   as   far   as  possible,  to   the  schoolroom. 
Therefore  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  two,  animated  with  the 
same  zeal  and  the  same  spirit  for  the  children,  and  who  most 
often  should  be  together  in  the  schoolroom,  even  in  the  presence 
of  the  head  mistress,  in  order  that,  seeing  the  respect  with  which 
the  children  behave  before  her,  they  may  both  have  the  right  to 
demand  for  themselves  the  same  respect  in  her  absence  as  in  her 
presence. 

6.  We  should  act  in  such  a  manner  that  the  children  may 
notice  a  great  harmony  and  perfect  union  and  confidence  with 
the  sister  who  is  given  to  us  for  a  companion.     She  should  not, 
therefore,  be  reproved  for  what  she  has  done  or  ordered,  if  what 
she  has  ordered  is  not  well,  in  order  that  the  children  should 

1  For  greater  security,  Mnie.  de  Maintenon  will  make  the  Ladies  of  Saint- 
Cyr,  in  addition  to  the  usual  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  take  a 
fourth  and  special  vow,  namely,  to  devote  themselves  to  the  education  of  the 
,  girls  of  Saint-Cyr. 


Pascal:    The  Children  of  Port- Royal.  229 

never  notice  any  contrariety,  but  should  be  warned  privately. 
For  it  is  important,  and  almost  necessary,  in  order  to  govern 
the  children  well,  that  the  sister  who  is  given  as  assistant 
should  be  inclined  to  think  everything  good  that  is  said  to  her. 
If  it  were  not  so,  it  would  be  necessary  to  report  it  to  the 
mother  superior.  If  what  she  might  do  contrary  to  us  only 
touched  our  temper,  and  did  no  harm  to  the  children,  we  should 
demand  God's  grace  to  rejoice  that  we  had  an  occasion  to  be 
vexed. 

7.  We  should  pray  to  God  to  give  the  children  a  great  respect 
for  the  sisters  who  are  with  us.     We  should  also  give  them  great 
authority,  but  especially  to  her  who  is  next  to  us.    It  is  well,  then, 
to  show  the  children,  and  even  tell  them  at  times,  that  she  has  a 
great  charity  for  them,  that  she  loves  them,  and  that  we  order  her 
to  tell  all  that  takes  place  in  the  schoolroom,  and  to  tell  her  before 
the  children  that  she  is  obliged  by  duty  and  charity  to  tell  us  not 
only  all  their  greater  faults,  but  even  their  slight  failings,  in  order 
to  aid  them  in  correcting  them. 

8.  We  put  a  sort  of  confidence  in  the  sisters  who  aid  us,  by 
telling  them  the  inclinations  of   the  children,  especially  of  the 
younger  ones,  and  also  those  of  the  elder  which  might  cause  some 
disorder,  that  they  may  the  better  watch  over  them.     We  should 
not,  however,  so  readily  tell  them  things  that  the  children  tell 
us  privately  if  we  do  not  see  in  this  a  necessity  for  their  good, 
lest  they  should  inadvertently  let  them  know  something  of  it.     I 
think  it  of  great  importance  that  the  children  should  see  that  we 
can  keep  a  secret,  although  what  they  tell  us  may  not  be  of  great 
importance  for  the  time,  because  it  might  happen  that  they  would 
have  something  important  to  tell  us  another  time,  especially  when 
they  advance  in  age,  which  they  would  have  some  difficulty  in 
telling  us  if  they  had  found  out  that  we  had  not  been  faithful  in 
small  things. 

9.  As  it  is  very  important  that  we  should  be  in  perfect  harmony 
and  complete  accord  with  the  sisters  who  are  appointed  to  assist 
us,  it  is  still  more  so  that  these  sisters  act  only  according  to  the 
order  that  they  find  and  see  established,  and  that  they  should  so 
conform  to  the  ideas  of  the  head  mistress  as  to  speak  only  through 
her  mouth  and  see  only  through  her  eyes,  in  order  that  the  children 


230  Port- Royal  Education. 

may  notice  nothing  that  is  not  in  perfect  agreement  between  them;1 
and  if  the  sisters  find  anything  to  object  to  in  the  conduct  of  the 
head  mistress  they  should  tell  her,  if  they  have  sufficient  con- 
fidence in  her,  and  have  permission  from  their  superiors.  If  God 
does  not  give  them  this  confidence  they  should  inform  the  mother 
of  it,  lest  unintentionally  they  let  something  of  it  appear  before 
the  children. 

10.  When  two  nuns  are  in  the  schoolroom  when  the  bell  rings 
for  service,  they  may  say  it  one  after  the  other,  that  there  may  be 
one  to  overlook  the  children  ;  but  she  will  say  nothing  of  the  faults 
she  may  see  them  commit  if  they  are  unimportant  until  her  com- 
panion has  finished  her  prayers,  in  order  to  inspire  them  with 
great  respect  when  they  see  anyone  engaged  in  prayer.     But  as 
soon  as  the  service  is  over,  which  is  very  short  when  it  is  said 
in  a  low  voice,  they  must  be  punished  according  to  the  gravity 
of  the  fault,  and  more  severely  than  when  prayers  are  not  being 
said. 

11.  When  there  is  only  one,  she  need  make  no  difficulty  in 
casting   a   look   at  them,  but   must   say  nothing  until  she   has 
finished  her  prayer.     We  have  seen  by  experience  the  good  this 
does   them,    and   when   we   are   strict   in   not   speaking   to    nor 
reproving  them  during  the  prayer,2  this  makes  them  more  re- 

1  Mme.  de  Maintenon  equally  insists  on  this  recommendation  :  "  In  order 
to  succeed  in  your  government  it  would  be  necessary  for  all  to  have  the  same 
ideas  and  the  same  maxims,  or  at  least,  if  you  have  different  ones,  to  be 
sufficiently  humble  to  renounce  your  own  opinions  and  follow  those  of  your 
/superiors,  maintaining  what  is  established  by  them  against  your  own  judg- 
mient.  .  .  .  Lay  aside  the  private  projects  that  self-love  makes  in  order  to 
compensate  the  necessity  of  falling  in  with  the  opinion  of  an  official.     You 
have  still  the  pleasure  of  inwardly  disapproving  of  her  conduct  and   of 
saying,  If  I  ever  have  that  place  I  shall  act  in  a  different  manner,  I  shall 

,do  this  or  that,  I  shall  be  more  gentle  or  more  firm.  Never,  I  repeat,  will 
I  your  authority  be  established  by  such  diversity  of  conduct.  It  would  be 
I  better  not  to  do  quite  so  well  but  to  do  always  the  same,  than  to  show  this 
\  unevenness  in  the  manner  of  educating  your  young  ladies  and  fulfilling  your 
duties."  (Entretiens,  1703.) 

2  No  detail,  perhaps,  shows  better  the  depth  and  sincerity  of  the  religious 
feeling  that  animated  the  monastery  of  Port-Royal.     The  Constable  Anne  de 
Montmorency  had  fewer  scruples.      "He  never  missed  his  devotions  nor 
prayers,"  says  BrantOme  ;  "  for  he  did  not  fail  to  repeat  his  Paternosters 
every  morning,  whether  he  remained  at  home  or  mounted  his  horse  and 
went  through  the  fields  to  the  armies,  where  they  used  to  say  that  they 
must  beware  of  the  Constable's  Paternosters  ;  for  while  saying  and  mumbling 


Pascal:    The  Children  of  Port- Royal.  231 

specif ul  when  they  pray,  and  more  "afraid  of  interrupting  us. 
We  cannot  too  much  inspire  the  young  with  respect  for  God 
as  much  by  our  example  as  by  our  words.  For  this  reason  we 
shall  be  very  precise  in  repeating  our  prayers  at  the  hours  when 
they  are  said  in  the  choir,  in  leaving  off  what  we  are  doing  at 
the  second  bell,  and  never  letting  ourselves  be  carried  away  by 
the  desire  to  finish  something.  Not  that,  if  the  necessity  of 
rendering  some  service  to  the  children  occurred,  we  should  not 
attend  to  it  before  our  prayers ;  but  it  is  right  that  the  children 
and  our  own  conscience  should  be  convinced  that  we  are  only 
working  for  God,  our  example  being  the  best  instruction  we  can 
give  them,  for  the  devil  gives  them  memory  to  make  them 
remember  our  least  faults,  and  takes  it  away  to  prevent  them 
remembering  the  trifling  good  that  we  do  them. 

12.  Therefore  we  cannot  pray  to  God  too  much,  nor  humble 
ourselves  and  watch  over  ourselves  too  much,  in  order  to  discharge 
our  duty  to  the  children,  since  obedience  binds  us  to  it;  and  I 
think  that  it  is  one  of   the  most  important  duties  of   the  house, 
and  we  cannot  be  too  apprehensive 1  in  fulfilling  it,  although  we 
must  not  be  pusillanimous,  but  put  our  trust  in  God,  and  force 
Him,  by  our  groans,  to  grant  us  what  we  do  not  deserve  of  our- 
selves, but  what  we  ask  of  Him  through  the  blood  of  His  Son, 
shed  for  these  innocent  souls  that  He  has  put  into  our  hands.    For 
we  should  always  look  upon  these  tender  souls  as  sacred  deposits 
that  He  has  entrusted  to  us,  and  of  which  He  will  make  us  give 
account ;  therefore  we  should  speak  less  to  them  than  to  God  for 
them. 

13.  And  as  we  are  obliged  to  be  with  them  always,  we  must 
behave  so  that  they  cannot  see  in  us  any  inequality  of  temper,2 

them,  when  the  circumstances  occurred,  because  many  outbreaks  and  dis- 
orders now  happen  there,  he  used  to  say,  '  Hang  me  such  a  one,  bind  that 
man  to  this  tree,  send  that  man  through  the  pikes  immediately.  .  .  .  burn 
me  that  village,'  and  thus  he  pronounced  such  or  suchlike  sentences  of  justice 
and  military  police  according  to  emergencies,  without  leaving  his  Pater- 
nosters, until  he  had  finished  them." 

1  The  saying  of  Saint-Cyran,  ' '  a  tempest  of  the  mind,"  will  be  remembered. 

2  * '  The  sole  desire  of  children  is  to  find  out  the  weak  side  of  their  teachers, 
as  of  those  to  whom  they  are  subject ;  as  soon  as  they  can  encroach  upon 
them  they  gain  the  upper  hand,  and  assume  an  influence  over  them  that  they 
never  lose.      That  which  makes  us  once  lose  this  superiority  over  them  also 
prevents  us  recovering  it."  (LA  BRUYEUE.  ) 


232  Port-Royal  Education. 

by  treating  them  sometimes  with  too  much  mildness  and  at  other 
times  with  severity.  These  two  faults  usually  follow  each  other ; 
for  when  we  allow  ourselves  to  caress  and  flatter  them,  giving 
them  liberty  to  go  as  far  as  their  temper  and  inclination  lead 
them,  reproof  infallibly  follows,  and  this  causes  that  unevenness 
of  temper  which  is  much  more  painful  to  the  children  than 
always  keeping  them  to  their  duty. 

14.  We  must  never  be  too  familiar  with  them,  nor  show  them 
too  much  confidence,  even  when  they  are  grown  up ;  but  we  must 
show  them  real  kindness  and  great  gentleness  in  all  that  they  need, 
and  even  anticipate  them. 

15.  We  must  treat  them  with  courtesy  and  speak  to  them  with 
deference,  and  give  way  to  them  as  far  as  possible.      This  wins 
them  over,  and  it  is  well  to  condescend  to  them  sometimes  in 
things  which  in  themselves  are  indifferent,  in  order  to  gain  their 
hearts. 

16.  When  it  is  necessary  to  reprove  their  levity  and  awkward- 
ness, they  should  never  be  mimicked  nor  excited  by  harshness, 
although  they  may  be  in  a  bad  temper;  on  the  contrary,  they 
must  be  spoken  to  with  great  mildness  and  given  good  reasons  in 
order   to   persuade   them ;    which  will  prevent  them   becoming 
soured,  and  make  them  accept  what  is  said  to  them. 

17.  We  must  pray  to   God  to  make   the  children  straight- 
forward, and  labour  ourselves  to  turn  them  from  all  tricks  and 
artifices,  but  this  must  be  done  so  simply  as  not  to  make  them 
artful  while  exhorting  them  to  be  artless.1     Therefore,   I  think 
that  we  should  not  let  it  appear  that  they  have  so  much  artifice. 
For  sometimes  by  constantly  telling  them  that  they  must  not  be 

1  This  wise  advice  recalls  this  lively  passage  of  a  letter  of  Mme.  de 
Maintenon  to  Mme.  de  Fontaine,  20  September,  1691,  at  tl^lHfcie  of  the 
reformation  of  Saint-Cyr  :  "  Pray  to  God,  and  make  the  others  pray  that  He 
will  change  their  hearts  (the  girls'),  and  that  he  will  give  us  all  humility  ; 
but,  Madam,  it  is  not  necessary  to  talk  much  of  it  to  them.  Everything 
at  Saint-Cyr  is  turned  into  discoursing  ;  they  often  talk  of  simplicity,  seek 
to  define  it  correctly,  to  understand  it,  to  distinguish  what  is  simple  from 
what  is  not  so  ;  then  in  practice  they  amuse  themselves  by  saying,  '  Through 
simplicity  I  take  the  best  place,  through  simplicity  I  am  going  to  praise  my- 
self, through  simplicity  I  desire  what  is  farthest  from  me  on  the  table.' 
Really,  this  is  playing  with  everything,  and  making  a  joke  of  what  is  most 


Pascal:    The  Children  of  Port-Royal.  233 

artful  we  make  them  so,  and  that  they  make  use  of  everything 
which  was  told  them,  when  they  were  not  so,  at  another  time, 
when  they  need  to  use  artifice  to  hide  some  faults  which  they  do 
not  wish  to  be  known. 

18.  Therefore  the  children  must  be  constantly  watched,  never 
leaving  them  alone  in  any  place  whatever,  in  health  or  in  sickness, 
but  without  letting  them  see  that  this  is  done  so  strictly,  in  order 
not  to  foster  in  them  a  distrustful  spirit  constantly  on  the  watch. 
For   that   accustoms  them  to  play  tricks  on  the  sly,  especially 
the  young  ones.      Thus,   I    think,  that   our   constant   watching 
should  be  effected  with  mildness  and  a  certain  confidence  which 
may  make  them  think  they  are  loved,  and  that  it  is  only  for  the 
sake  of  accompanying  them  that  we  are  with  them.     This  makes 
them  like  this  supervision  rather  than  fear  it. 

19.  As  to  the  youngest  children,  they  must  be,  more  than  the 
rest,  familiarized  and  brought  up,  if  possible,  like  young  doves. 
When  they  have  committed  a  considerable  fault  which  deserves 
punishment,    few   words    should   be   used;     but  when  you   are 
perfectly  certain,  they  must  be  punished  without  saying  a  word 
why  they  are  punished  until  it  is  over.       And  even  then  it  is 
good  to  ask  them,  before  telling  them  anything,  if  they  know  why 
they  have  been  punished ;   for  usually  they  have  not  failed  to 
recognize  it.      This  punishment,  promptly  administered  without 
a  word,  prevents  them  telling  untruths  in  order  to  make  excuses 
for  their  faults,  to  which  young  children  are  very  prone ;   and  I 
think  that  they  correct  their  faults  better  themselves,  because 
they  fear  being  surprised. 

20.  I  think  also  that  in  slight  faults  small  warning  should  be 
given  them,   for   insensibly  they  get   accustomed   to   be  always 
talked  to.     Therefore  you  should  pretend  only  to  see  one  out  of 
three    or   four   faults;    but  after  having   looked   at  them  some 
time,  they  must  be  caught  and  made  to  give  satisfaction  at  once. 
That  corrects  them  much  better  than  many  words. 

21.  When  young  children  are  very  obstinate  and  rebellious,  they 
should  be  made  to  undergo  the  same  punishment  three  or  four 
times,  which  subdues  them  completely  when  they  see  that  you  are 
not  wearied.    But  when  you  do  this  one  day  and  forgive  them  the 
next  or  neglect  them,  it  makes  no  impression  on  their  minds,  and 


234  Port- Royal  Education. 

it  is  found  to  be  necessary  to  adopt  more  stringent  measures 
than  those  which  would  have  been  necessary  with  any  sort  of 
regularity. 

22,  Lying  is  very  common  with  young  children.     Everything 
therefore  should  be  done  to  accustom  them  not  to  fall  into  this 
vicious   habit ;   and  for  that  it  seems  to   me  that   they  should 
be  cautioned  with  great  gentleness,  to  make  them  confess  their 
faults,   saying  that  we  know  very   well   what  they  have  done, 
and  when  they  confess  of   themselves  they  should  be  forgiven, 
or  their  punishment  should  be  mitigated. 

23.  While  the  children  are  still  very  young,  as  four  or  five  years 
old,  they  should  not  be  left  all  day  with  nothing  to  do,  but  their 
time  should  be  divided,  making  them  read  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  then  play  for  another  quarter,  and  then  work  again  for 
a  short   time.     These   changes  amuse  them,   and   prevent  them 
falling  into  the   bad  habit,  to   which  children  are  very   liable, 
of  holding  their  book  and  playing  with  it,  or  with  their  work, 
of   sitting  sideways  and  often  turning  their  heads.      But  when 
they  are  told  to  employ  a  quarter  or   half   an   hour  well,    and 
are  promised  that  if  they  attend  to  their  lesson  or  their  work 
they  shall  be  allowed  to  play,  they  work  quickly  and  well  for  this 
short  time  in  order  to  be  rewarded  afterwards.      And  when  you 
have  made  this  promise  before  work,  although  they  play  during 
the  time,  you  must  say  nothing ;  but  at  the  end,  when  the  time  is 
up,  and  they  think  they  are  going  to  play,  they  must  again  give 
the  time  to  the  work,  pointing  out  to  them  that  you  do  not  always 
wish  to  speak,  but  that,  since  they  have  done  nothing  but  trifle, 
they  must  begin  again.    That  surprises  them,  and  puts  them  on 
their  guard  another  time.1 

II.  To  what  we  lead  them  in  general  conversations  and  in  con- 
junctures in  which  they  give  us  cause  to  speak  to  and  ivarn  them. 

They  are  made  to  understand  that  perfection  does  not  consist  in 
doing  many  special  things,  but  in  doing  well  what  they  do  in 
common,  that  is  to  say,  cheerfully  and  for  the  love  of  God,  with 

1  This  is  an  application  of  natural  sanction,  so  dear  to  Rousseau  and 
Spencer.  That  is  better  than  all  arbitrary  punishments  and  reprimands. 
The  child  feels  the  justice  of  it,  and  corrects  himself. 


Pascal:    The  Children  of  Port-Royal.  235 

a  great  desire  to  please  Him,  and  always  to  do  His  holy  will  with 

joy- 

They  are  taught  to  value  the  small  opportunities  that  God  gives 
them  of  suffering  something  for  His  sake,  as  some  slight  contempt 
shown  by  their  sisters,  some  accusations  wrongly  made  against 
themselves,  some  privations  of  their  desires  and  inclinations, 
some  occasion  for  renouncing  their  own  will  which  may  be 
given  by  their  teachers,  or  by  some  other  occurrence.  They  are 
asked  to  receive  all  this  as  a  gift  of  God,  and  a  witness  of  His 
great  love,  and  of  the  care  that  He  takes  to  give  them  oppor- 
tunities of  perfecting  themselves  every  day.1 

They  should  often  be  spoken  to  of  the  pleasure  and  satisfaction 
of  giving  themselves  entirely  to  God  and  of  serving  Him  in  truth 
and  simplicity,  without  wishing  to  keep  anything  back  from  Him ; 
.  .  .  that  some  will  gain  heaven  and  others  deserve  only  chastise- 
ment for  the  same  action,  according  to  the  impulse  of  their  heart 
and  the  purity  or  impurity  of  their  motives.  It  is  well  to  make 
them  understand  this  by  some  slight  comparisons,  as,  for  example, 
that  a  good  action  done  for  God's  sake,  and  from  a  desire  to  please 
Him  and  to  do  His  holy  will  leads  us  to  heaven ;  and  that,  on  the 
contrary,  the  same  action  done  in  a  spirit  of  hypocrisy  or  vanity, 
and  only  with  the  desire  to  be  well  thought  of  by  our  fellow- 
creatures,  deserves  only  punishment;2  for  having  done  nothing 
for  God,  we  ought  not  to  expect  a  reward,  but  only  punishment  in 
recompense  of  our  hypocrisy. 

Children  should  be  strongly  exhorted  to  know  themselves,  their 

1  This  morality  is  very  ill  adapted  to  the  intelligence  and  character  of 
children.      It  is  simpler  and  more  practical  to  tell  them  that  in  order  to 
render  social   life  possible,  we  ought  mutually  to  bear  our  imperfections, 
to  avoid   offending  our  neighbours,   and  to  arm  ourselves  with  patience. 
These  are  the  reasons  that  Nicole  develops  in  his  celebrated  treatise  on 
the  Means  of  living  in  peace  with  men. 

2  Mme.   de  Maintenon  will  be  less  severe.     * '  You  cannot  too  much  inspire 
your  young  ladies  with  the  love  of  reputation.     They  must  be  very  scrupulous 
on  the  subject.      Consider  those  who  are  the  vainest  as  the  best  of  your 
pupils  .  .  .   they  must  die   to   this  scrupulousness   when  they  are  more 
advanced  in  piety  ;  but  before  dying  to  it  they  must  have  lived  in  it. 
Nothing  is  so  bad  as  certain  natures  without  honour  and  without  vanity  ; 
we  do  not  know  how  to  take  them  in  order  to  make  them  surmount  the 
obstacles  they  find  in  their  path  ;  thus  it  would  be  very  dangerous  to  stifle 
these  sentiments  in  young  persons  who  usually  are  incapable  of  an  exalted 
piety."  (Entretiens,  1703.) 


236  Port-Royal  Education. 

inclinations,  vices,  and  passions,  and  to  go  to  the  root  of  their 
defects.  It  is  well,  also,  that  they  know  to  what  their  nature 
inclines  them,  in  order  to  remove  what  may  be  displeasing 
to  God,  and  to  change  their  natural  inclinations  into  spiritual. 
To  tell  them,  for  example,  that  if  they  are  of  a  sympathetic 
disposition  they  should  change  the  love  they  have  for  themselves 
and  their  fellow-creatures  into  loving  God  with  all  their  hearts, 
and  thus  with  their  other  inclinations. 

They  may  be  shown  sometimes  that  one  of  the  greatest  faults 
of  the  young  is  indocility,  and  that  it  is,  as  it  were,  natural  to 
them ;  that  if  they  do  not  take  care  this  vice  will  ruin  them, 
making  them  incapable  of  accepting  advice,  and  that  this  is  always 
the  mark  of  a  proud  spirit.  Therefore,  they  will  often  be  told 
that  they  should  wish  to  be  treated  with  firmness,  and  that  they 
should  show,  by  the  meekness  with  which  they  receive  advice 
that  is  given  them,  that  they  are  willing  that  everything  that  may 
be  displeasing  to  God  should  be  destroyed  in  them. 

We  exhort  them  not  to  be  ashamed  of  doing  good.  For  some- 
times those  who  have  been  unruly  are  ashamed  to  do  what  is  right 
before  those  who  have  seen  their  unruliness.  They  must  be  told 
to  pray  to  God  to  strengthen  them  that  they  may  do  good  freely, 
and  that,  although  at  first  they  often  fall  back,  they  must  raise 
themselves  again  often  and  more  courageously.  These  instructions 
should  be  given  generally,  and  even  at  times  when  none  are  dis- 
orderly, that  they  may  serve  for  another  time,  and  that  those  who 
should  be  more  orderly  may  apply  them  to  themselves  if  needful. 

We  tell  them  that  their  difficulties  in  acquiring  virtue  proceed 
from  this,  that  as  soon  as  some  vice  to  be  overcome  or  some  virtue 
to  be  acquired  appears,  they  fall  back  upon  themselves  in  order  to 
consult  their  own  temper,  inclination,  self-love,  and  weaknesses, 
and  the  trouble  that  they  have  to  conquer  themselves  ;  but  instead 
of  weakening  themselves  by  these  human  views,  they  must  turn  to 
God,  in  whom  they  will  find  all  strength,  even  in  their  weakness ; 
.  .  ,  that  if  they  were  told  to  throw  off  their  troubles  and  weak- 
nesses by  themselves  they  would  have  good  reason  to  be  discouraged ; 
but  since  they  are  told  that  God  will  Himself  remove  their  diffi- 
culties, they  have  only  to  pray  and  hope.  .  .  . 

We  ought  not  to  anticipate  them  touching  religion,  especially  in 


Pascal:    The  Children  of  Port-Royal  237 

general,  nor  let  them  see  how  few  persons  we  think  are  saved 
in  the  world  ;  it  is  sufficient  to  let  them  see  that  there  are 
many  difficulties  in  being  saved  in  it.  ...  What  they  ought 
to  avoid  if  they  return  to  society  should  be  pointed  out  to 
them.  .  .  . 

If  they  enter  on  the  subject  of  religion  of  their  own  accord,  in 
order  to  express  their  opinions  on  it,  the  opportunity  may  very 
well  be  taken  to  tell  them  something  of  the  happiness  of  a  good 
nun.1  .  .  . 

It  is  well  to  let  them  know  sometimes  that  they  are  loved  for 
God's  sake,  and  that  this  affection  makes  us  so  sensitive  to  their 
faults  and  renders  it  so  difficult  to  support  them,  and  that  the 
ardour  of  this  love  makes  the  words  we  use  in  reproving  them 
sometimes  so  severe.  At  the  same  time,  we  shall  assure  them 
that,  in  whatever  manner  we  act.  we  are  led  only  by  the 
affection  we  bear  them  and  the  desire  to  make  them  such  as  God 
would  have  them  to  be ;  that  our  heart  is  always  tender  towards 
them,  that  our  severity  is  only  for  their  faults,  and  that  we  do 
great  violence  to  ourselves,  having  much  more  inclination  to  treat 
them  gently  than  severely. 

III.  How  children  should  be  spoken  to  in  private. 

The  habit  of  speaking  to  children  in  private  makes  their  govern- 
ment easier.  In  these  conversations  their  troubles  are  relieved,  we 
enter  into  their  spirit  to  make  them  strive  against  their  faults, 
we  lay  bare  their  vices  and  passions  to  the  roots,  and  I  may  say 
that  when  God  gives  them  a  thorough  confidence  in  their  teacher, 
there  is  much  to  be  hoped  for ;  and  I  have  not  seen  one  who  en- 
joyed this  perfect  confidence  who  has  not  succeeded. 

The  conversations  with  them  should  be  very  serious,  and  great 
kindness  should  be  shown  them,  but  no  familiarity ;  and  if  there 
were  one  who  was  seen  to  seek  talking  for  amusement,  she  should 
be  treated  more  coolly  than  the  rest.  Therefore  we  have  need  of 
great  discretion,  not  only  in  the  conversation  itself,  but  also  in  the 
time  chosen  for  it.  I  think  about  every  fortnight  is  sufficient, 
unless  for  some  special  need,  for  which  no  rule  can  be  given. 

1  The  recommendation  was  not  needed.  Everything  in  this  education 
tended  to  conventual  life. 


238  Port-Royal  Education. 

We  must  take  great  care,  and  not  allow  ourselves  to  be  deceived; 
and  it  is  a  great  advantage  when  they  are  forewarned  that  we  know 
all  the  artifices  of  children,  which  makes  them  give  up  the  design, 
and  unconsciously  return  to  simplicity  and  sincerity,  without  which 
it  is  impossible  to  serve  them  usefully. 

It  is,  then,  very  necessary  not  to  allow  ourselves  to  be  surprised, 
and  we  cannot  avoid  this  without  God's  continual  help.  Therefore 
we  shall  never  speak  to  them  without  having  prayed  to  God,  and 
considered,  even  in  His  presence,  what  we  think  they  should  tell 
us,  and  what  we  think  He  wishes  that  we  should  reply  to  them  x 
.  .  .  and  if,  while  speaking  to  them,  they  tell  us  something  of 
the  truth  of  which  we  are  not  quite  certain,  we  shall  tell  them 
that  we  will  take  time  to  pray  to  God  before  replying  to  them,  in 
order  that  He  may  prepare  them  to  receive  with  a  heart  entirely 
free  from  all  human  interest,  all  that  we  shall  tell  them  from  Him 
for  their  good.  We  shall  also  use  this  retardation  as  soon  as  we 
see  that  their  mind  is  soured  by  what  we  have  said  to  them,  or 
that  they  do  not  take  in  good  part  some  advice  that  we  have 
given  them.  We  may  tell  them  that  we  see  that  they  are  not 
very  well  disposed  to  listen  to  us,  or  that  perhaps  we  are  not  well 
informed,  and  that  by  both  praying  to  God,  if  we  do  it  with 
humility,  He  will  no  doubt  have  pity  on  us.  This  slight  con- 
descension and  all  these  things  should  not  be  told  to  all,  but  is 
of  great  use  to  the  elder  girls  and  to  those  who  are  intelligent. 
Great  discretion  is  needed  to  speak  to  them  at  a  proper  time 
and  place.  Therefore  I  repeat  here  what  I  cannot  say  too  often, 
and  what  I  do  not  do  enough,  namely,  to  pray  more  than  talk,  and 
I  think  we  must  always  have  our  heart  and  mind  raised  to  heaven 
to  receive  from  God  all  the  words  that  we  should  say  to  them.2 

Constant  vigilance  is  necessary  in  order  to  form  an  opinion  of 
them  and  to  discover  their  tempers  and  inclinations,  that  we  may 
learn,  by  regarding  them  attentively,  what  they  have  not  the 
courage  to  disclose  to  us.  It  is  well  to  encourage  them  when 
we  see  that  they  are  ashamed  to  tell  of  their  faults  in  order  to 
give  them  more  freedom  to  disclose  them ;  it  is  well  to  hide  from 

1  This  is,  indeed,  the  teaching  of  Saint-Cyran.    (See  p.  77.) 

2  See  the  saying  of  Saint-Cyran.  (p.  70.) 


Pascal:    The  Children  of  Port- Royal.  239 

them  many  truths  that  we  think  would  be  too  hard  for  their 
imperfect  state.  .  .  . 

If  they  ask  to  be  set  to  do  many  private  things,  few  or  none 
will  be  given  them,  pointing  out  to  them  that  they  will  not  please 
God  in  that  way  if  it  does  not  come  from  a  heart  really  touched 
by  love  of  Him  and  a  sincere  desire  to  please  Him  and  do 
penance ;  that  we  do  not  judge  them  by  these  actions,  but  by 
their  obedience  to  the  smallest  rules  of  the  schoolroom,  by  the 
support  they  give  their  sisters,  by  the  kindness  with  which  they 
help  them  at  need,  and  by  their  care  in  mortifying  their  faults ; 
these  things  will  make  us  think  they  wish  to  serve  God,  and  not 
a  number  of  private  actions.  .  .  . 

We  shall  tell  them  these  things,  although  sometimes  we  shall 
not  fail  to  allow  them  to  do  in  other  circumstances  what  they  ask 
us,  without  appearing  to  take  notice  or  taking  any  account  of  it ; 
on  the  contrary,  during  the  time  that  they  are  asking  for  some- 
thing extraordinary  to  do,  we  shall  pretend  not  to  be  occupied 
with  them,  not  failing  to  notice  their  actions  much  more  than  at 
other  times,  in  order  to  point  them  out  afterwards  when 
opportunity  offers.  By  behaving  thus  to  them  we  shall  soon 
discover  if  they  only  ask  these  things  through  hypocrisy.  For 
then,  if  they  have  only  done  it  to  be  noticed,  when  they  see  that 
we  do  not  notice  them  they  will  let  them  go  and  ask  nothing 
more.  .  .  . 

IV.  Of  General  and  Private  Penances  that  may  be  imposed 
on  them. 

They  must  be  obliged  to  beg  pardon  of  those  sisters  or  of  their 
companions  of  whom  they  have  spoken  ill  with  mockery,  or  given 
some  other  offence  or  shown  a  bad  example. 

This  pardon  may  be  asked  in  several  ways,  according  to  the 
gravity  of  the  fault,  either  in  public  or  in  private,  in  the  refectory 
or  during  lessons.  They  may  also  be  commanded  to  kiss  the  feet 
of  the  companion  whom  they  have  offended.  Above  all,  care 
must  be  taken  that  if  the  fault  was  only  witnessed  by  two  or 
three  persons,  they  must  make  amends  only  in  private,  at  least,  if 
the  fault  was  of  little  consequence,  it  being  very  dangerous  to  N 
inform  needlessly  those  who  have  not  seen  the  faults  of  others. 


240  Port-Royal  Education. 

I  say  the  same  of  the  faults  of  some  of  the  leading  girls ;  when  a 
considerable  numher  have  fallen  into  them  it  will  be  necessary  to 
wait  and  reprove  each  privately  or  all  the  guilty  together,  in  order 
not  to  inform  the  weak  needlessly. 

They  may  be  obliged  to  wear  a  grey  cloak,  to  go  to  the  refectory 
without  a  veil  or  a  scapulary,  and  even  to  stand  at  the  church 
door  in  this  state. 

They  should  also  be  deprived  of  going  to  church  for  one  or 
more  days,  according  to  the  gravity  of  their  fault,  or  made  to 
stand  at  the  church  door  or  in  some  other  place  separate  from  the 
rest ;  above  all,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  deprivation  of  going 
to  church  is  not  indifferent  to  them. 

The  children  of  the  lower  and  middle  classes  may  be  made  to 
wear  a  paper  written  in  large  characters  expressing  their  faults ; 
it  is  sufficient  if  there  is  a  word  or  two,  as  idle,  negligent,  un- 
truthful, &C.1 

To  make  them  ask  the  sisters  of  the  refectory  to  pray  for  them, 
telling  them  the  fault  into  which  they  have  fallen  or  the  virtue 
which  they  lack.2 

The  elder  girls  should  be  made  to  fear  for  God's  sake,  and 
through  fear  of  His  judgments,  and  in  certain  circumstances 
some  of  the  penances  that  are  imposed  on  the  younger  may  be 
imposed  on  them,  as  making  them  go  without  a  veil,  or  ask  the 
prayers  of  the  sisters  in  the  refectory.  But  it  must  be  considered 
if  that  would  be  useful  and  not  harmful  to  them  by  only  exas- 
perating them.  This  obliges  us  to  pray  to  God  that  He  will 
enlighten  us  and  guide  us  in  everything  for  His  glory  and  the 
salvation  of  these  souls  that  He  has  committed  to  our  care.  .  .  . 

V.    Of  Confession. 

.  .  .  The  youngest  girls  will  not  go  so  soon  or  so  often  to 
confession ;  before  making  the  younger  go,  you  will  wait  until 
they  are  reasonable  and  show  a  wish  to  correct  their  small 
failings,  nothing  being  so  much  to  be  dreaded  as  making  the - 

1  This  public  humiliation  has  the  grave  disadvantage  of  weakening  the 
sentiment  of  honour  in  children  ;  it  depraves  instead  of  correcting. 

2  It  was  demanding  great  perfection  from  the  children  to  impose  a  burden 
which,  moreover,  ran  the  risk  of  being  insincere. 


Pascal:    The  Children  of  Port- Royal.  241 

children  go  so  young  without  seeing  any  change  in  them,  and  you 
should  at  least  wait  until  they  have  persevered  for  some  time  in 
trying  to  do  better.  .  .  . 

We  take  care  that  the  children  are  benefited  by  the  confession 
before  permitting  them  to  return  to  it;  and  when  they  have 
committed  some  considerable  faults,  we  exhort  them  to  make 
amends  for  them  first ;  and  if  they  have  the  confidence  to  tell 
them  to  us,  which  is  the  most  useful,  we  advise  them  to  make 
amends  according  to  the  gravity  of  their  faults,  but  especially 
in  things  which  mortify  them  and  are  opposed  to  their  faults.1 
As,  for  example,  if  they  have  failed  in  the  charity  that  they  owe 
to  their  sisters,  they  will  be  made  to  serve  them  and  fulfil  towards 
them  all  the  duties  of  charity  with  more  unction  and  gentleness ; 
and  if  the  fault  has  been  seen,  they  will  ask  pardon  both  of  her 
who  has  been  offended  and  of  those  who  have  seen  it ;  they  will 
also  repeat  some  prayers  for  those  whom  they  have  offended.  We 
shall  act  in  such  a  way  that  they  do  not  return  to  confession  until 
their  heart  is  really  humbled,  and  they  are  sorry  that  they  have 
offended  God.  We  shall  act  thus  with  respect  to  the  greater  faults 
that  the  children  commit  in  order  that  they  may  not  make  their 
confession  by  routine,  which  is  much  to  be  feared  for  everybody, 
but  especially  for  children.  .  .  . 

VI.    Of  Reading. 

The  books  used  for  the  instruction  of  the  children  are  the 
Imitation  of  Christ,  Fr.  Luis  de  Granada,  The  Philothee,  St. 
John  Climacus,  The  Tradition  of  the  Church,  the  Letters  of  M. 
de  Saint-Cyran,  the  Familiar  Theology,  the  Christian  maxims  in 
the  Boole  of  Hours,  the  Letters  of  a  Carthusian  Father,  lately 
translated,  and  other  books  whose  object  is  to  form  the  true 
Christian  life. 

For  the  reading  by  one  of  them  after  vespers  other  books  may 
be  used,  as  some  letters  of  St.  Jerome,  the  Christian  Almsgiving, 

1  This  is  one  of  the  important  points  of  the  moral  reform  of  Saint-Cyran. 
He  thought  it  shameful  that  Christians  should  think  it  sufficient  to  go  and 
tell  their  faults  to  a  priest,  and  consider  themselves  absolved  by  God  and 
their  conscience  for  having  afterwards  recited  a  few  prayers  by  way  of 
penance,  without  altering  their  conduct  in  the  least.  (See  Introduction, 
pp.  61  and  62,  the  violent  outburst  of  Arnauld  against  this  abuse.) 

R 


242  Port-Royal  Education, 

some  passages  of  St.  Teresa's  Way  of  Perfection,  and  also  of  The 
Foundations  in  what  concerns  the  narrative,  the  Lives  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Desert,  and  other  lives  of  saints  which  are  in 
special  books. 

We  ourselves  do  all  the  reading  in  public  except  that  after 
vespers,  but  we  are  always  present  to  explain  what  is  read  to 
them  and  address  them  upon  it.  The  object  should  be  to 
habituate  them  not  to  listen  to  the  reading  for  the  sake  of 
amusement  or  curiosity,  but  with  a  desire  to  apply  it  to  them- 
selves ;  and  for  that  it  is  necessary  that  the  manner  of  explaining 
it  should  aim  rather  at  making  them  good  Christians  and  leading 
them  to  correct  their  own  faults  than  making  them  learned.  .  .  . 

In  the  readings  that  we  do  not  do  ourselves  we  mark  what  they 
have  to  read,  and  they  are  not  permitted  to  change  either  the 
passage  or  the  book,  for  there  are  very  few  books  in  which  there 
is  not  something  to  pass  over. 

At  the  reading  after  vespers  they  are  allowed  and  even  enjoined 
to  ask  questions  constantly  upon  everything  that  they  do  not 
understand,  provided  that  it  be  done  with  respect  and  humility ; 
and  in  replying  we  teach  them  how  to  apply  this  reading  to  the 
correction  of  their  manners.  If,  in  reading,  we  see  that  they  ask 
no  questions  on  something  that  we  think  most  of  them  do  not 
understand,  they  are  asked  if  they  understand  it,  and,  if  we  see 
that  they  cannot  answer,  they  will  be  reproved  for  remaining  in 
ignorance,  since  they  have  been  told  to  ask  for  instruction  in  what 
they  do  not  know. 

As  soon  as  the  reading  is  finished  the  book  is  taken  away,  for 
we  leave  them  no  other  book  in  private  than  their  Hours,  the 
Familiar  Theology,  the  Words  of  our  Lord,  an  Imitation  of  Christ, 
and  a  Latin  and  French  Psalter.  Their  mistress  keeps  all  their 
other  books,  which  they  think  very  proper,  having  recognized  that 
it  is  more  advantageous  to  them,  and  that  the  most  pious  reading 
is  of  no  use  to  them  when  it  is  done  through  curiosity.  .  .  . 

They  are  never  allowed  to  open  a  book  that  does  not  belong  to 
them,  nor  to  borrow  from  each  other  without  permission  from  their 
mistress,  which  is  seldom  given,  in  order  to  avoid  the  confusion 
that  these  loans  occasion. 


Pascal :    The  Children  of  Port-Royal.  243 

VII.    Of  the  Sick  and  their  Bodily  Needs. 

Very  great  care  must  be  taken  of  those  who  fall  sick,  attending 
upon  them  properly  and  exactly  at  the  stated  hours;  calling  in  the 
physician  if  the  malady  requires  him,  and  carrying  out  punctually 
all  that  he  orders  for  the  relief  of  their  sickness.  .  .  . 

We  accustom  them  not  to  make  difficulties  in  taking  the  most 
disagreeable  remedies.  We  are  always  present,  in  order  to  speak 
to  them  of  God,  to  encourage  them,  and  make  them  offer  their 
sickness  to  God.  .  .  . 

They  are  exhorted  never  to  find  fault  with  the  doctor's  pre- 
scriptions, because  he  holds  the  place  of  God  with  respect  to  them 
in  their  sickness.  Therefore  they  ought  to  obey  him  as  they 
would  God  Himself,  abandoning  their  life,  their  health,  or  their 
sickness  to  the  order  of  Divine  Providence,  who  uses  the  good 
or  ill  success  of  the  remedies  for  our  welfare.  Therefore,  in  every- 
thing untoward  that  may  happen,  the  blame  must  never  be  laid  on 
the  physician  nor  on  the  remedies,  but,  in  silence  and  humility,  the 
order  that  the  Divine  Goodness  lays  upon  us  must  be  adored;  and 
to  give  occasion  to  the  sick  to  be  in  this  frame  of  mind,  I  pre- 
suppose that  we  always  have,  if  possible,  physicians  who  are  good 
Christians  as  well  as  good  physicians.1 

There  will  always  be  a  room  set  apart  for  the  sick,  which  the 
other  children  will  not  be  allowed  to  enter,  unless  in  case  of  great 
necessity,  and  with  the  permission  of  their  mistress.  During  the 
time  of  recreation  one  of  the  more  steady  may  be  sent  to  amuse 
them.  The  sister  in  attendance  must  not  leave  them,  unless  there 
be  some  older  children,  as  those  who  are  ready  to  enter  upon  their 

1  Port-Royal,  in  fact,  counted  some  distinguished  physicians  among  her 
solitaries  ;  first  Pallu,  from  1643  to  1650,  of  whom  Fontaine  has  left  us  this 
delightful  portrait:  "Everything  belonging  to  him  was  small,  except  his 
mind  ;  a  small  body,  a  small  house,  a  small  horse,  but  everything  well  fitting, 
well  proportioned,  and  very  agreeable.  Who  would  not  have  loved  this 
worthy  recluse  ?  It  was  almost  agreeable  to  fall  ill  in  order  to  have  the 
pleasure  of  enjoying  his  conversation."  Then  Hamon,  from  1650  to  1687, 
graver,  more  authoritative,  and  an  ardent  mystic,  which  made  this  simple 
layman,  during  the  years  of  persecution,  the  consoler  and  director  of  the 
sisters.  The  Mother  Angelique  wrote  to  him:  "After  the  great  gift  of  a 
perfect  confessor,  nothing  is  more  important  than  that  of  a  truly  Christian 
physician,  who  expresses,  in  all  his  words  and  actions,  the  pious  maxims  of 
Christianity."  His  pupil,  Racine,  desired  to  be  interred  at  the  foot  of  his 
grave.  And  lastly,  Hecquet,  from  1668  to  1693. 


244  Port-Royal  Education. 

novitiate,  and  who  may  be  entirely  trusted,  who  may  watch  and 
even  attend  upon  them  if  the  illness  is  not  very  serious. 

.  When  there  are  many  patients  a  sister  is  placed  there,  besides 
her  who  takes  care  of  them  in  health,  and  the  sisters  must  be 
discreet  and  gentle  ;  discreet,  to  keep  them  to  their  duty,  lest 
during  the  sickness  they  lose  what  they  have  acquired  with  so 
much  labour  in  health,  and  also  not  to  humour  them  in  their 
inclinations  or  the  repugnance  they  have  in  taking  the  remedies 
that  are  ordered  them,  and  the  abstinence  they  should  practise 
from  certain  food  which  would  be  hurtful  to  them;  but  they  must 
also  be  gentle,  in  order  to  soften,  by  the  kind  way  in  which  they 
act  and  by  gentle  words,  all  that  must  be  refused  them  for  their 
health.1 

We  pay  great  attention  to  the  sick,  leaving  rather  even  the 
healthy,  as  much  to  treat  them  properly,  as  to  keep  them  in 
order  and  teach  them  to  be  sick  like  Christians.  .  .  . 

As  soon  as  the  children  are  cured  they  go  back  to  the  others,  lest 
they  should  become  unruly,  which  is  to  be  feared  in  the  young, 
who  most  often  only  ask  for  liberty.2  But,  although  they  have 
returned  to  the  schoolroom,  great  care  will  be  taken  to  feed  them, 
and  give  them  repose  when  they  need  it  for  the  perfect  recovery  of 
their  health. 

For  slight  ailments  which  may  come  upon  them  every  attention 
will  be  paid  them,  but  they  will  not  be  petted  too  much;  for 
children  sometimes  pretend  to  be  ill.  I  have  seen  some  of  this 
sort,  although,  through  God's  grace,  it  has  not  happened  among 
ours  for  a  long  time.  But,  when  it  does  occur,  you  must  not 
show  that  you  think  that  they  wish  to  deceive  you,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  pity  them  a  good  deal  and  tell  them  that  they  are  really 

1  Pascal  said  during  his  sufferings :     * '  Do  not  pity  me,  sickness  is  the 
natural  state  of  Christians."    According  to  the  fine  expression  of  Saint- 
Cyran,  "the  sick  should  regard  their  bed  as  an  altar,  on  which  they  offer  to 
God  continually  the  sacrifice  of  their  life,  to  restore  it  to  Him  when  He  shall 
please  ! "     Pliny  the  younger  wrote  upon  this  thought  one  of  his  finest 
letters  :  "  We  are  all  good  people  when  we  are  ill ;  for  what  sick  man  does 
avarice  or  ambition  tempt  ?  .  .  .     I  can  give  here,  between  us  two  and  in  few 
words,  a  lesson  on  which  the  philosophers  make  whole  volumes.     Let  us 
persevere  in  being  such  in  health  as  we  should  wish  to  become  when  we  are 
sick." 

2  "What  a  criticism  on  this  monastic  system  of  education  ! 


Besogne:   Sister  Anne-Eugenie.  245 

ill,  and  immediately  put  them  to  bed  in  a  separate  room,  with  a 
sister  to  nurse  them,  but  who  is  not  to  speak  to  them  at  all,  telling 
them  that  talking  will  do  them  harm,  and  that  they  require  rest.1 

They  are  put  for  a  day  or  two  on  a  diet  of  broth  and  eggs.  If 
the  illness  is  real  this  diet  is  very  good  for  them,  and  if  not  there 
is  no  doubt  they  will  say  next  day  that  they  are  not  ill;  and 
thus  they  will  be  cured  of  their  deceit,  without  giving  them  an 
opportunity  of  complaining,  a  thing  that  happens  when  they  are 
told  that  they  have  not  the  illness  that  they  complain  of,  and  even 
risks  making  them  tell  untruths  and  pretend  still  more. 


SISTER  ANNE-EUGENIE    DE    I/INCARNATION,  MISTRESS 
OF  THE  BOARDERS. 

The  Mother  Angelique  recalled  sister  Eugenie,  after  a  residence 
of  three  and  a  half  years  at  Maubuisson,  in  1631. 

Her  return  to  Port-Royal  was  a  subject  of  great  joy  for  the 
house.  She  was  entrusted  with  the  care  of  the  younger  boarders, 
and  performed  this  duty  with  very  great  success.  This  will  easily  be 
understood  when  it  is  known  on  what  principles  and  on  what 
method  she  acted  in  this  office.  First,  she  had  a  special  zeal 
in  making  the  children  value  the  grace  of  baptismal  innocence. 
She  often  spoke  to  them  of  it,  and  did  so  with  incredible  energy, 
and,  consequently,  she  took  them  to  the  parlour,  to  the  visitors  who 
came  to  see  them,  with  very  great  reluctance ;  and  when  she  was 
there,  took  very  great  care  to  avoid  conversation  which  might 
inspire  them  with  love  of  the  world.  She  taught  the  children 
that  the  society  of  worldly  people  was  contagious  for  the  soul,  as 
the  plague  is  for  the  body.2  She  knew  how  to  impress  upon  them 
a  great  respect  for  the  mysteries  of  religion,  for  the  grandeur  of 
God,  and  for  the  truths  of  the  gospel.  She  never  told  any  of 
these  truths  to  the  children,  except  after  having  prepared  them, 

1  This  little  comedy,  so  legitimately  acted,  shows  another  application  of 
natural  sanction.  (See  note,  p.  234.) 

2  This  was  a  strange  preparation  for  social  life.     Mme.  de  Maintenon, 
notwithstanding  her  desire  to  educate  better  than  the  convent,  paints  the 
world  in  frightful  colours,  without  recalling  to  mind  the  wise  definition 
of  Fenelon :  ' '  The  world  is  not  a  phantom,  it  is  the  assemblage  of  all  the 
families." 


246  Port- Royal  Education. 

and  often  after  having  made  them  do  something  to  deserve  it. 
She  announced  several  days  in  advance  that  she  had  a  great 
truth  to  tell  them,  and  thus  made  it  expected  and  desired.  She 
only  taught  these  truths  one  by  one,  dreading  lest  the  habit  of 
hearing  them  should  accustom  the  children  to  them,  and  that  they 
should  be  no  longer  touched  by  them,  having  known  them  before 
they  had  sufficient  grace  and  understanding  to  comprehend  and 
feel  them.  She  gave  a  constant  attention  to  everything  that 
concerned  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  children,  she  was  quite 
taken  up  with  it,  she  prayed  without  ceasing  for  them,  she  even 
made  a  practice  of  regularly  attending  all  the  prayers  of  the 
children  that  were  said  in  common,  and  of  saying  them  with 
them,  considering  herself  charged  to  pay  to  God  the  worship 
that  these  children  were  not  yet  able  to  pay  Him,  and  to  supply 
by  her  will  that  which  the  children  lacked. 

The  children's  faults  affected  her  as  much  as  her  own ;  she  did 
penance  for  them,  and  incited  them  to  do  it  for  themselves  accord- 
ing to  their  slender  capacity.  If  she  found  one  who  was  not 
willing  to  acknowledge  her  fault  she  said  nothing  more  to  her, 
prayed  for  her  in  private,  and  left  her  with  a  kindness  and  tolera- 
tion that  sooner  or  later  bore  fruit.  She  had  this  maxim  from 
M.  de  Saint-Cyran,  as  well  as  all  the  preceding,  that  with  the  young 
it  was  necessary  to  speak  little,  tolerate  much,  and  pray  still  more. 
She  contrived  little  artifices  of  charity  to  make  them  love  what  is 
good,  she  composed  devout  little  notes  on  the  virtues,  and  made 
them  draw  lots  for  them,  which  piously  amused  the  children. 
She  represented  some  virtue  by  an  emblem,  she  made  an  enigma- 
tical portrait  of  it,  and  left  them  to  guess  what  virtue  it  was. 
Recreation  usually  began  with  that,  and  then  she  left  them  to 
amuse  themselves  with  their  little  games ;  for  she  never  failed 
to  be  present  at  the  commencement  of  their  recreation  every  day, 
which  astonished  the  sisters,  who  knew  how  devout  she  was,  and 
not  being  ignorant  of  how  much  natural  dislike  she  had  for 
teaching  children,  wondered  how  she  constrained  herself  to 
become  a  child  with  the  children  and  willingly  remain  among 
these  little  people.  Moreover  the  great  punishment  she  employed 
with  regard  to  them  when  she  had  any  reason  for  displeasure, 
was  not  to  be  present  at  their  recreation.  All  the  party  then 


Nicole:  A  Recreation  at  Port-Royal.  247 

burst  into  tears,  and  the  other  sisters  had  to  go  and  beg  Sister 
Eugenie  to  return  and  dry  their  tears.  She  was  fifteen  or  sixteen 
years  in  this  employment. 

Her  humble  simplicity  was  towards  the  end  put.  to  a  proof 
which  turned  to  her  glory,  but  not  to  the  welfare  of  the  children. 
The  mothers,  who  had  received  and  admitted  to  the  house  a  sister 
from  Gif,  named  Sister  Flavie  Passart,  were  thoroughly  deceived 
in  her.  They  saw  that  she  was  capable  of  many  things  by  the 
mental  qualities  that  she  possessed,  and  they  thought  that  she  had 
also  those  of  the  heart.  They  made  her  assistant  mistress  of  the 
boarders  under  Sister  Eugenie.  This  young  woman,  who  was  full 
of  ambition,  set  to  work  to  draw  all  authority  to  herself.1  She 
substituted  a  high-handed  and  despotic  manner  for  that  of  Sister 
Eugenie,  who  was  full  of  gentleness.  She  even  succeeded  in 
making  Sister  Eugenie  believe  that  hitherto  she  had  acted 
wrongly,  that  her  gentleness  was  the  cause  that  the  children 
did  not  correct  themselves,  and  that  they  would  succeed  better 
by  severity.  Sister  Eugenie  was  simple  and  humble  enough  to 
adopt  the  views  of  this  young  woman.  She  allowed  her  to  act, 
believing  that  she  was  doing  better  than  herself,  she  bewailed 
without  ceasing  the  pretended  faults  that  she  had  committed  in 
her  place ;  at  last  she  earnestly  begged  to  be  relieved  of  her 
employment,  especially  as  she  was  getting  very  infirm. 

(Besogne,  Hist,  de  Vabbaye  de  Port-Royal,  t.  i.  p.  348.) 


A  RECREATION  AT  PORT-ROYAL. 

"  In  the  monastery  of  Port-Royal  des  Champs,"  Desmarets 2 
relates,  "the  mistress  of  the  boarders  had  instructed  her  scholars 
in  matters  contested  between  the  disciples  of  Jansenius  and  the 
Jesuit  fathers,  and  having  inspired  them  with  a  terrible  aversion 
for  these  fathers,  had  given  them  the  idea  of  making  a  doll  and 

1  Sister  Flavie,  Nicole  tells  us,  was  mistress  of  the  boarders  for  fifteen 
years.  (Les  Visionnaircs,  p.  347.) 

2  Desmarets    de    Saint -Sorlin    (1595-1676),    a  member  of   the  French 
Academy,  the  author  of  the  comedy  of  the  Visiannaires,  and  of  the  poem 
Clovis ;  he  was  distinguished  among  the  most  violent  enemies  of  Jansenism. 
His   reason   went  astray   in   the   folly   of  a   mystical   illuminism.     Nicole 
defended  Port-Royal  against  him,  as  Boileau  undertook  to  avenge  antiquity 
for  his  attacks. 


248  Port-Royal  Education. 

dressing  it  like  a  Jesuit.  Then  they  made  another  doll  and  dressed 
it  like  a  capuchin.  They  took  them  to  the  sisters  for  their  amuse- 
ment, and  after  several  questions  between  one  and  another,  one, 
who  was  the  president,  summed  up  and  condemned  the  Jesuit. 
Then  all  the  boarders  and  the  sisters  clapped  their  hands  in  token 
of  victory,  rose  up  tumultuously,  and  carried  the  Jesuit  doll  in 
triumph  into  the  garden,  where  there  was  a  pond,  plunged  it  in 
several  times,  and  at  last  drowned  it.  This  was  done  with  trans- 
ports of  joy,  bursts  of  laughter,  flying  veils  and  wimples  in 
disorder,  and  laughing  frenzy,  and  the  poor  counterfeit  Jesuit  was 
like  a  wretched  Orpheus  in  the  hands  of  furious  Menads.  Never- 
theless, that  was  called  a  becoming  recreation  for  pious  nuns  and 
devout  school  girls,  and  passed  off  with  the  great  satisfaction  and 
approbation  of  the  mothers,  who  are  very  pious,  if  you  will  believe 
their  apologist." 

EXPLANATIONS. 

"Here,"  replies  Nicole,  "is  one  of  the  strangest  examples  to  be 
found  of  the  artifices  that  malice  can  inspire  to  raise  the  blackest 
calumnies  on  the  slightest  and  most  simple  grounds.  This  is  all 
that  can  have  given  rise  to  this  scandalous  story.  When  nothing 
but  Escobar  was  spoken  of  in  Paris  and  throughout  France,  some 
engravers  made  a  ridiculous  picture  of  him.  A  young  child  of 
good  family,  who  was  then  about  eight  or  nine  years  old,  gave  one 
to  his  sisters,  who  were  about  his  own  age,  and  were  brought  up 
in  the  monastery  of  Port-Royal  des  Champs.  These  little  girls 
having  seen  it,  and  being  struck  with  the  name  and  the  expression 
of  the  personage  of  whom  their  brother  had  sometimes  spoken  to 
them  laughing,  brought  him  to  trial  and  condemned  him  to  be 
drowned.  To  carry  out  this  sentence  they  made  a  paper  boat, 
and  their  intention  was  to  put  Escobar1  in  it,  and  send  him  to  be 
drowned  into  the  middle  of  the  canal  that  ran  through  their 
garden.  But  this  design  was  discovered  before  it  was  executed 
...  so  that  it  was  very  near  costing  these  poor  little  girls  more 
than  Escobar.  .  .  .  This  is  all  that  is  true  in  this  tale,  which  only 
shows  the  wisdom  of  the  nuns  of  Port-Royal."  (Les  Visionnaires, 
p.  350.) 

1  Escobar  y  Mendoza  (1589-1669),  a  Spanish  casuist  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  whose  lax  morality  Pascal  has  branded  with  immortal  ridicule. 


APPENDIX. 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  WRITEES  OF  PORT-ROYAL  BY 
FATHER  BOUHOURS.1 

.  .  .  WHAT  do  you  think,  said  Ariste,  of  those  solitaries  who  have 
written  so  much  during  the  last  twenty  years? — I  do  them  justice, 
replied  Eugene,  and  I  candidly  admit  that  they  have  contributed 
much  to  the  perfection  of  our  language. 

Have  you  seen,  said  Ariste,  the  translation  that  they  have  made 
of  the  Imitation  of  Christ?  I  have  heard  say  that  it  is  one  of  their 
best  works,  and  that  they  propose  it  themselves  as  a  model  of  the 
purity  of  the  language. 

I  have  been  reading  it  for  some  days,  replied  Eugene,  and  I  esteem 
it  at  least  as  much  as  the  Confessions  of  St.  Augustine  and  the  Life 
of  Doni  Barthelemy  des  Martyrs,  in  which  the  long  sentences  rather 
fatigue  the  reader. 

It  is  true,  replied  Ariste,  that  these  very  famous  writers  cannot 
be  accused  of  brevity ;  they  like  long  discourses  naturally,  long 
parentheses  please  them  very  much,  long  periods,  and  especially  those 
which,  by  their  excessive  length,  make  one  out  of  breath  to  read  them, 
are  quite  to  their  taste.  The  fine  Life  of  the  Archbishop  of  Prague 


1  Father  Bouhours,  a  Jesuit  (1628-1702)  and  a  meritorious  critic,  author 
of  the  Entretiens  d*  Ariste  ct  d' Eugene,  of  Remarques  sur  la  langue  franqaise, 
and  of  the  Maniere  de  bien  penser  dans  les  ouvrages  d' esprit.  ' '  He  overflows 
with  wit,"  Mme.  de  Sevigne  wrote  of  him.  Racine,  addressing  to  him, 
about  1676,  the  first  four  acts  of  Phedre,  begs  him  "to  mark  the  faults  that 
he  may  have  committed  agOTst  the  language,  of  which  you  are  one  of  our 
most  excellent  masters."  But  his  character  and  morals  do  not  deserve  the 
same  praise:  "He  is  a  wretch  of  whom  nothing  good  is  to  be  expected," 
writes  Arnauld  to  M.  du  Vaucel  (18  August,  1690).  If  this  testimony 
seems  suspicious,  why  did  the  archbishop  of  Paris  not  permit  Bouhours  to 
put  his  name,  "as  being  too  undignified,"  to  his  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  ? 


250  Port- Royal  Education. 

begins  with  an  inordinately  long  sentence  ;  a  man  must  have  good 
lungs  to  deliver  it  all  in  one  breath,  and  pay  great  attention  to  under- 
stand it  the  first  time  of  reading. 

That  may  be  called  getting  tired  at  the  beginning  of  the  journey, 
said  Eugene  ;  but  the  fact  is,  he  added,  these  gentlemen  have  been 
going  on  in  this  style  for  a  long  time  ;  they  are  used  to  it,  and 
apparently  they  will  have  some  difficulty  in  giving  it  up.  After  all, 
we  must  not  quarrel  with  them  for  a  fault  that  only  proceeds  from 
copiousness  ;  if  making  long  sentences  is  a  vice,  it  is  the  vice  of  great 
orators  ;  and  this  makes  me  think  that  these  gentlemen  will  not  get 
rid  of  it. 

Why  should  they  not  get  rid  of  their  long  periods  ?  replied  Ariste  ; 
with  time  they  have  got  rid  of  their  exaggerations.  Nothing  was 
more  common  in  their  earlier  books  than  extravagant  expressions,  as  : 
la  plus  granule  et  la  plus  punissaUe  de  toutes  les  hardiesses,  la  plus  sanglante 
de  toutes  les  invectives,  la  plus  etrange  tSme'rite  et  la  plus  grossiere  ignorance 
qui  fut  jamais.  There  was  seen,  even  in  titles  and  narratives  that 
ought  to  be  plain  and  simple,  une  audace  qui  n'eut  jamais  de  pareille, 
une  ignorance  insupportable,  une  insolence  punissable,  la  plus  insigne  de 
toutes  les  fourberies,  la  plus  Idche  ^prevarication  qui  fut  jamais.  One  of 
the  most  judicious  critics  of  our  time  formerly  reproached  them  with 
this. 

They  have  not  entirely  given  up  this  kind  of  expressions,  said 
Eugene.  They  still  put  le  plus  in  many  places  where  it  is  not  wanted  ; 
or,  if  they  do  not  use  this  term  to  exaggerate  what  they  say,  they  use 
big  words  and  grand  epithets,  which  have  nearly  the  same  effect.  For 
instance,  une  impertinence  signak'e,  un  e'garement  prodigieux,  un  attentat 
insupportable,  un  emportement  diabolique,  un  effroyable  exces  de  malice 
et  de  folie.  As  to  the  length  of  the  sentences,  far  from  shortening 
them,  they  add  tails,  which  make  the  discourse  extremely  long.  For 
example,  after  long  sentences,  which  are  tiring  in  themselves,  they 
usually  put  some  participle,  as  :  etant  certain  que  .  .  .  ,  rien  n'etant 
plus  avantageux  que  .  .  .  ,  which  does  not  give  much  repose  to  the 
mind,  nor  allow  readers  to  take  breath. 

I  do  not,  indeed,  find  hyperbolical  expressions  nor  inordinately  long 
sentences  in  the  Imitation  of  Christ ;  notwithstanding,  to  hide  nothing 
from  you,  there  is  a  something,  I  do  not  know  what,  that  I  do  not 
like.  These  are  scruples,  perhaps  ;  you  shall  judge,  if  you  like,  and 
I  begin  with  the  epistle  dedicatory. 

Tant  s'en  faut  que  ce  glorieux  rabaissement  soit  indigne  du  courage  de 
votre  naissance.  I  confess  that  this  glorieux  rabaissement  does  not  please 
me  very  much. — It  does  not  please  me  at  all,  said  Ariste,  and  I  doubt 


Appendix.  251 


whether  rabaissement  is  French.  I  have  heard  talk  of  the  rate's  of 
money ;  and  perhaps  we  might  say  the  rabaissement  of  a  person  who 
lias  been  deprived  of  his  dignity  and  rank  ;  but  I  do  not  think  we  say 
rabaissement  for  humility  and  this  glorieux  does  not  suit  very  well, 
according  to  my  idea. 

There  is  a  word  which  surprised  me  in  the  Avertissement  au  lecteur, 
continued  Eugene.  II  e'yale  la  hautesse  et  la  magnificence  des  ouvrages 
des  saints  Peres.  What  do  you  say  of  hautesse?  Until  now,  said 
Ariste,  I  thought  that  the  title  hautesse  was  given  to  a  nobleman,  and 
I  did  not  think  the  title  hautesse  ought  ever  to  be  given  to  the  Fathers. 
I  would  as  soon  call  them  altesse,  and  I  should  think  the  altesse  of  their 
works  as  good  as  hautesse.  Joking  apart,  hautesse  offends  me  still  more 
than  rabaissement.  But  let  us  see  the  rest  (Eugene  then  read  the 
following  passages) :  Uwil  est  insatiable  de  voir ;  Us  travaillent  plus  d 
s'acque'rir  de  Ve'clat  qu'a  se  fonder  dans  Vhumilite'.  Geux  qui  sont  encore 
nouveaux  et  inexpe'rimente's  dans  la  voie  de  Dieu. 

I  think  your  previous  doubts  are  very  well  founded,  said  Ariste. 
Insatiable  is  one  of  those  words  that  have  nothing  after  them,  that 
govern  nothing.  We  say  insatiable  avarice  (une  avarice  insatiable),  an 
insatiable  heart  (un  coeur  insatiable),  but  we  cannot  say  insatiable  de 
manger,  nor  insatiable  de  voir.  We  may,  indeed,  say  un  desir  insatiable 
d'apprendre;  but  then  d'apprendre  is  governed  by  desir,  and  not  by 
insatiable. 

Se  fonder  dans  Vhumilite'  does  not  seem  to  me  very  good  ;  but 
acque'rir  de  Veclat  does  not  seem  to  me  to  be  French.  We  say  indeed 
aimer  V eclat,  faire  de  P&lat ;  but  we  do  not  say,  that  I  know,  acque'rir 
de  Ve'clat  in  any  sense  whatever. 

Inexperimente*  is  a  word  in  the  style  of  these  gentlemen,  as  well  as 
inallie,  inalliable,  incorrompu,  inconvertible,  intolerance,  clairvoyance^ 
inobservation,  inattention,  desoccupation,  desoccuper,  desaveugler,  coronateur, 
insidiateur ;  to  which  may  be  added  elevement,  abregement,  brisement, 
dechirement,  resserrement,  attiedissement ;  and  these  adverbs  de'clarement, 
inexplicablement,  and  incontestablement.  For  they  have  no  difficulty  in 
making  new  words,  and  even  claim  to  have  the  right  to  do  so  ;  as 
if  private  persons  and  solitaries  had  a  power  that  kings  themselves 
do  not  possess. 

It  is  apparently  in  virtue  of  this  assumed  authority,  said  Eugene, 
that  the  translator  of  the  Imitation  has  coined  a  word,  of  which  we 
have  never  heard  speak,  namely,  indisposer,  with  an  active  signification 
— Celui  qui,  apres  m'avoir  regu,  se  repand  aussit6t  en  des  satisfactions 
exterieures,  ^indispose  beaucoup  pour  me  recevoir.  .  .  . 

This  indisposer  is  pleasant,  replied  Ariste,  and  I  shall  be  very  much 


252  Port- Royal  Education. 

deceived  if  that  word  makes  its  way  ;  for  it  is  with  words  something 
like  it  is  with  men :  some  have  a  lucky  star,  so  to  say,  and  are  received 
as  soon  as  they  present  themselves  ;  but  there  are  some  unlucky  ones 
that  cannot  be  tolerated,  and  to  which  we  can  never  get  accustomed. 
Indisposer  is  one  of  these  unfortunate  ones,  as  well  as  Jtevemcnt,  which 
these  gentlemen  put  everywhere,  and  nobody  but  themselves  uses. 

Well,  what  would  you  have  ?  said  Eugene  ;  they  are  fond  of  new 
words,  and  like  making  them.  But  let  us  go  on.  Do  you  like 
se  trouver  dans  Vobscurcissement,  dans  Venivrement  et  dans  le  resserrement  ? 
...  Do  you  like  Venivrement  of  the  amusements  of  the  world? 
Complaire  a  Dieu  instead  of  plairel  .  .  . 

To  be  plain  with  you,  said  Ariste,  I  do  not  like  all  that. 

I  do  not  know,  said  Eugene,  if  you  will  like  better  what  remains 
to  read.  .  .  .  Vous  serez  sujet  malgre  vous  d  la  mutabilite  et  au  change- 
ment.  Gelui  qui  est  encore  assujetti  au  trouble  de  ses  passions.  These 
two  phrases  do  not  please  me.  A  man  is  subject  to  change,  but  is  not 
subject  to  mutability ;  mutabilite  means  a  disposition  to  change  ;  to 
be  changeable  is  to  be  subject  to  change,  so  that  to  be  subject  to 
mutability  means  the  same  as  to  be  subject  to  a  disposition  to  change 
and  to  the  power  of  changing,  which  does  not  seem  to  me  very  reason- 
able. I  say  the  same  of  assujetti  au  trouble  de  ses  passions,  a  man  is 
subject  to  his  passions,  he  is  the  slave  of  his  passions,  but  is  not 
assujetti  au  trouble,  nor  esclave  du  trouble  de  ses  passions ;  that  is  neither 
according  to  reason  nor  usage. 

Qu'il  est  triste,  au  contraire,  et  penible  de  voir  des  personnes  sans  ordre 
et  sans  regie  !  II  est  triste  de  voir,  il  est  penible  de  voir  displease  me. 

Celui-ld  est  vraiment  sage  qui  ne  prete  point  Voreille  aux  amorces  et  aux 
enchantements  de  ces  sirenes  qui  tuent  en  caressant.  I  would  pardon  this 
preter  Voreille  aux  amorces  in  insignificant  writers,  who  are  not  expected 
to  be  so  correct ;  but  I  cannot  pardon  it  in  great  writers,  who  should 
excuse  nothing  in  themselves.  Amorces  (bait)  is  one  of  those  meta- 
phorical words  in  which  something  of  their  primary  meaning  still 
remains.  We  say  indeed  the  amorces  of  vice  ;  we  might  say,  To  allow 
ourselves  to  be  caught  by  the  amorces  of  the  sirens  ;  but  I  doubt  if  we 
can  say,  Preter  Voreille  aux  amorces  (to  listen  to  the  bait).  It  seems 
to  me  that  these  two  words,  oreille  and  amorces,  do  not  go  well 
together. 

Que  cette  vie  est  malheureuse,  puisqu'elle  est  toujours  assitfge'e  de  pieges 
et  de  filets,  et  pleine  d'une  infinite*  d'ennemis  qui  Venvironnent  de  toutes 
parts!  This  word  assiege'e  does  not  very  well  agree  with  pieges  and 
filets ;  it  would  agree  better  with  ennemis,  and  this  passage  would  be 
better  thus  :  Que  cette  vie  est  malheureuse,  puisqu'elle  est  toujours  assiegee 


Appendix.  253 


tfennemis,  et  pleine  tfune  infinite  de  pieges  et  de  filets  qui  I'environnent 
de  toutes  parts ! 

Afin  que  vous  soyez  le  dominateur  de  vos  actions. 

Good  heavens  !  what  a  way  to  talk  !  I  would  as  soon  say  le  seigneur 
et  le  roi  de  vos  actions.  Not  that  dominateur  is  not  French ;  but 
dominateur  and  actions  do  not  harmonize. 

II  faut  que  vous  conserviez  votre  dme  dans  une  privation  de  toutes  les 
douceurs.  Abaissez  mon  cou  et  ma  tite  superbes,  afin  de  faire  plier  ma 
rolonte'  ddreyUe  et  inflexible  sous  la  rectitude  et  la  saintete'  de  la  v6tre. — 
Here  are  what  may  be  called  phrases.  To  preserve  his  soul  in  the 
privation  of  all  delights  ;  to  make  his  will  bend  under  the  rectitude 
of  the  will  of  God :  either  I  am  no  judge,  or  else  this  is  rather  like 
Nerveze.1 

Je  suis  dans  une  defaillance  generale  de  toutes  choses.  This  is  not  well 
expressed,  meaning  I  am  in  want  of  all  things  ;  defaillance  does  not 
mean  manquement  and  defaut,  in  that  sense.  We  say  defaillance  de 
c&ur,  defaillance  d'esprit,  defaillance  des  astres;  but  not  defaillance  in 
speaking  of  money,  of  clothes,  or  of  things  necessary  to  life. 

L'impuissance  ou  je  me  trouve  d'etre  console*  par  aucun  homme.  Etre 
dans  Vimpuissance  agrees  very  well  with  an  active  verb,  but  not  with 
a  passive  verb.  We  say,  Je  suis  dans  Vimpuissance  de  vous  assister,  de 
vous  servir ;  but  1  do  not  think  we  can  say,  Je  suis  dans  Vimpuissance 
d'etre  assist^  de  mes  amis,  d'etre  console  par  aucun  homme. 

Si  impuissant  a  vous  taire ;  si  facile  pour  la  dissipation  et  le  ris ;  si 
fecond  a  former  de  bonnes  resolutions,  et  si  sterile  a  en  produire  les  effets. 
These  phrases  are  not  French.  What  style  !  Je  suis  impuissant  d 
parler,  je  suis  impuissant  a  me  taire,  meaning  I  cannot  speak,  I  cannot 
be  silent.  Foreigners  who  are  beginning  to  learn  French  speak  in 
that  manner ;  they  should  say,  Si  peu  maitre  de  votre  langue,  instead 
of  Si  impuissant  a  vous  taire.  Facile  does  not  go  well  with  pour,  nor 
with  a  noun;  either  it  requires  nothing  after  it  or  d  and  a  verb.  C'est 
un  esprit  facile,  c'est  une  chose  facile  d  faire.  Fecond  and  sterile  are  not 
joined  with  verbs.  The  earth  is  feconde,  a  field  is  sterile;  but  the  earth 
is  not  feconde  a  former  metals  in  its  bowels ;  a  field  is  not  sterile  d 
produire  du  bU ;  at  most  the  earth  is  feconde  en  mttaux,  a  field  is 
sUrile  en  ble.  The  translator  should  have  said,  Si  fecond  en  bonnes 
resolutions,  et  si  sterile  en  bons  effets. 

1  De  Nerveze,  the  author  of  Essais  potttiques,  dedicated  to  Henri  de 
Bourbon  (1603). — Furetiere,  in  \\isfactums,  speaks  of  the  strained  metaphors 
which  make  his  songs,  sonnets,  heroic  epistles,  ballets,  &c.,  ridiculous. 
Father  Bouhours  says  a  little  above :  the  nerveze,  the  gibberish,  and  the 
bombast. 


254  Port-Royal  Education. 

De  peur  que  m'abstenant  plus  longtemps  de  votre  sacre  corps,  je  ne  me 
refroidisse  pen  a  peu  de  mes  saints  dfoirs. — Se  refroidir  de  ses  saints  desirs 
is  a  new  phrase  that  I  have  not  yet  heard.  I  have  always  heard  say  : 
Se  refroidir  dans  ses  exercices  de  piete',  dans  une  entreprise  ou  Von  s'est 
engag&  avec  chaleur. 

0  etat  sacr6  de  la  vie  religieuse,  qui  rend  Vhomme  cheri  de  Dieu !  Si 
vous  aviez  soin  de  rendre  votre  dme  vide  de  I'affection  de  toutes  les  creatures. 
— I  am  sure  that  persons  at  all  fastidious  in  language  will  not  like 
this  style  of  speaking  :  Rendre  cheri,  rendre  vide.  Rendre  does  not  agree 
with  participles,  nor  with  all  kinds  of  adjectives.  We  do  not  say 
II  se  rend  aime',  although  we  may  say  II  se  rend  aimaUe.  Nor  do  we 
say  rendre  vide  any  more  than  rendre  plein,  meaning  vider  and  remplir. 
These  expressions  are  like  rendre  connu,  which  Balzac  has  absolutely 
condemned  in  the  sonnet  on  Job. 

Comme  Us  n'ont  pas  en  moi  une  pleine  confiance,  Us  s'entremettent  encore 
du  soin  d'eux-mSmes.  That  is  not  French.  We  say  indeed,  S  'entremettre 
d'une  affaire  ;  but  we  do  not  say,  S  'entremettre  du  soin  d'ime  affaire,  nor 
du  soin  d'une  personne. 

Tous  mes  desirs  soupirent  vers  vous.  It  is  the  heart,  the  person  that 
sighs  (soupire) ;  but  desires  do  not  sigh,  they  cause  to  sigh.  Soupirent 
vers  vous  is  not  good  ;  it  should  be  Soupirent  apres  vous,  or  pour  vous. 

Je  ne  trouve  du  repos  en  aucune  creature,  mais  en  vous  seul,  6  mon  Dieu. 
This  construction  is  not  regular.  Je  ne  trouve  du  repos  does  not  agree 
well  with  mais  en  vous  seul.  The  phrase  should  be  turned  differently,  or 
at  least  it  should  be  mais  fen  trouve  en  vous  seul.  The  verb  should  not 
be  understood  in  these  constructions ;  it  should  always  be  expressed, 
and  we  should  not  be  afraid  to  repeat  the  same  word ;  repetition  is 
not  disagreeable  when  it  contributes  to  regularity  of  construction  and 
clearness  of  style. 

Vous  vous  aimes  trop  par  un  amour  de're'gle'.  Conside'rer  tout  par  un 
ceil  si  pur  et  si  eclaire*.  As  soon  as  a  person  loves  himself  too  much, 
he  loves  himself  extravagantly ;  thus  par  un  amour  de're'gle'  is  useless 
after  trop.  Besides,  s'aimer  par  un  amour  de're'gle'  is  not  well  expressed, 
no  more  than  considerer  par  un  ceil  si  pur  et  si  e'claire;  we  must  say, 
S  'aimer  d'un  amour  dere'gle',  considerer  tout  d'un  ceil  si  pur  et  si  e'claire'. 

II  y  en  a  peu  qui  sortent  entierement  de  leurs  inclinations  et  de  kur 
humeur.  This  is  not  good  French  for  saying,  Qui  renoncent  enticement 
a  leurs  inclinations  et  a  leur  humeur.  We  say  of  a  man  carried  away 
by  passion,  il  est  hors  de  soi,  il  est  rentre'  en  soi-m$me;  but  we  do  not 
say,  II  est  sorti  de  soi-meme;  thus  we  say,  Sortir  de  son  pe'che',  sortir  de 
son  caract&re;  but  we  do  not  say,  Sortir  de  ses  inclinations  et  de  son 
humeur.  .  ,  f 


Appendix.  255 

We  should  never  end,  said  Eugene,  if  I  were  to  read  you  all  the 
passages  that  I  have  marked.  There  is  not  a  chapter  on  which  I  have 
not  some  doubts.  Nevertheless,  the  Imitation  of  Christ  is  the  smallest 
book  of  these  gentlemen,  and  has  had  the  greatest  popularity  of  all 
their  books  ;  it  has  gone  to  thirteen  editions. 

I  conclude  from  all  this,  said  Ariste,  that  the  greatest  masters  are 
liable  to  be  mistaken  sometimes. 

(Deuxieme  entretien  d}  Ariste  et  <V Eugene,  p.  187.) 


The  Bureau  typographique  or  Typographic  Table  was  a  method  of 
teaching  the  alphabet  invented  by  Louis  Dumas  (1676-1744),  a  French 
litterateur  of  Montpellier.  It  was  a  table  with  compartments  like  a 
printer's  case,  containing  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  the  ortho- 
graphical signs  written  on  cards  ;  over  the  compartments  the  names 
of  the  letters  were  written  as  they  are  given  in  the  note  (p.  111). 
The  child  picked  out  the  letters  to  form  the  words  that  were  given 
him  to  spell,  and  afterwards  distributed  the  letters  into  their  proper 
divisions,  thus  learning,  in  play,  orthography  and  the  elements  of 
grammar.  This  was  a  favourite  system  in  the  18th  century. 

(Note  by  the  Translator.) 


INDEX. 


Abgarus :  38. 

Agnes,  The  Mother,  (Jeanne-Cathe- 
rine Agnes  Arnauld,  sister  of  Dr. 
Arnauld) :  6,  46,  49,  51,  53,  note; 
65,  note;  75,  note;  95,  note;  221, 
note. 

Aguesseau,  D':  40. 

Aldrovandus  :  174  and  note. 

Alembert,  D':  64. 

Alet  (Bp.  of) :  63,  note. 

Alvares :  14,  note. 

Ambrose,  St.:  13. 

Andilly,  D',  see  Villeneuve,  son  of. 

—  Arnauld  d'  (elder  brother  of  Dr. 
Arnauld):    25,  45,  46,  note;    78, 
note  ;   81,  82. 

Angelique,  The  Mother  (Marie  Ange- 
lique  Arnauld,  sister  of  Dr. 
Arnauld) :  45  and  note ;  46  and 
note  ;  48,  50,  54,  note ;  55  and 
note  ;  60,  note ;  110,  note ; 
219,  note  ;  225,  note  ;  243,  note  ; 
245. 

—  de    Saint-Jean    (Arnauld),    The 
Mother  (niece   of   Dr.  Arnauld) : 
46,  193,  note. 

Annat,  Father,  Jesuit :  19,  44. 
Anne  of  Austria,  63. 

—  Eugenie  de  1' Incarnation,  Sister 
(sister  of   Dr.  Arnauld) :    50,  54, 
245  seq. 

Archimedes :  195. 

Aristotle  :  11,  28,  29  ;  definition  of 

the  verb,  113  and  note ;  125,  132 

seq. 
Arnauld  (advocate) :  43,  note. 

—  Antoine,  Dr.  (son  of  preceding) : 
1,  9  and  note  ;   Author  of   Port- 
Royal  books,  12,  17,  19,  21,  note ; 
22,  25 ;   Logic,   26  ;    a  Cartesian, 
27,  28  and  note  ;  Logic,  31,  43  seq. 
and    note  ;     composition    of    the 
Logic,  44,  52,  55,  56,   59,  note; 


61,  62  and  note;  65,  note;  82, 
89,  note  ;  96  and  note  ;  110,  note  ; 
114,  note ;  letter  on  grammar, 
117  seq.;  on  classical  studies,  123 
seq.,  193,  note ;  197,  note ;  204, 
note;  221,  note;  227,  note;  241, 
note ;  his  opinion  of  Bouhours, 
249,  note. 

Arsenius,  St. :  71  and  note. 

Aubry,  Mile.:  21,  39. 

Augustine,  St.:  13,  36,  83,  note  ;  96, 
103,  104,  107,  199,  205,  216,  219, 
note. 

Avaux,  M.  d' :  21,  note. 

Bacon :  31  and  notes  his  opinion  of 
the  Jesuits  as  educators,  59,  note ; 
128,  note. 

Bailly  :  judicial  astrology,  129,  note. 

Bain :  indirect  moral  instruction, 
169,  note. 

Balzac,  M.  de :  16,  84,  note  ;  254. 

Barbier,  notice  on  Guyot :  42. 

Barcos,  M.  de  :  21,  82. 

Basil,  St. :  180. 

Bauny,  Father :  36. 

Bayle:  66. 

Beaubrun,  M.  de,  on  Nicole's  Jansen- 
ism :  22. 

Beauzee :  113,  note  ;  117,  note. 

Bembo  :  146  and  note. 

Benedict,  St.  :  71,  76. 

Bernard,  St.  :  85,  note  ;  201,  205, 
207. 

Bernieres,  M.  de  :  86,  note. 

Berulle,  De  :  60. 

Besogne :  Nicole's  classical  know- 
ledge, 22,  41,  44,  47  and  note;  50, 
55,  note  ;  62. 

Bignon,  M.  Jer6me  :  3,  note ;  8,  13, 
31,  note  ;  70  and  note. 

—  JerOme  and  Thierri :  3,  note  ;  45, 
70,  note> 


Index, 


257 


Bignou,  Marie :  3,  note ;  47,  70,  note. 
Boileau :    20 ;    Arrtt   burlesque,   30, 

66,  147,  note. 
Boisguilbert,  45,  46,  note. 
Boissier,  M.  G.  :  178,  note. 
Bona,  Card.  :  65,  note. 
Bossuet :    19,    note ;    24,   27,  note ; 

29,    note;     34,     37,    note;     44, 

96,  note. 
Bouhours,  Father  :  16  and  note  ;  19, 

note  ;  249  and  note  ;  253,  note. 
Bourbon,  Henri  de  :  63,  253,  note. 
Bourdoise  :  60. 
Boutiot,  M.  Th.  :  47,  note. 
Boxhorn :  113,  note. 
Breal,  Michel  :  17. 
Brisacier,  Father:  19,  note;  44. 
Bruno,  Giordano :  29. 
Burnouf:  17. 
Bussy  :  14. 
Buxtorf  :  114  and  note. 

Calvin  :  19,  note  ;  62. 

Camper :  79,  note. 

Canaye,  Father :  59. 

Cassini,  astronomer:  195. 

Cato  the  Censor  :  216  and  note. 

Chambre,  M.  de  la  :  117  and  note. 

Champagne,    Philippe   de-    97   and 

note. 

Channing  :  2,  note ;  80,  note. 
Chapelain  :  17,  20,  25,  26. 
Chapelle:  215,  note. 
Charron  :  109,  note. 
Chaze,  Mme.  de :  50. 
Chevreuse,  Due  de  :  20,  44. 
Chiflet,  Father  :  pronunciation  of  oit 

157,  note. 

Choisy,  Mme.  de  :  66. 
Chrysologus,  St. :  206. 
Chrysostom,  St.:  13,  203  and  note. 
Cicero:  125,  his  letters,  176  and  note. 
Clemencet :  47,  note. 
Canard:  14. 
Comenius  :  15. 
Condillac:  17. 
Contarini :  60,  note. 
Conti,  La  princesse  de :  63,  204,  note. 
Conti,  Le  prince  de :  20,  63  and  note. 
Copernicus :  195. 
Corbinelli:  14. 
Cordier,  Mathurin,  teacher  :  158  and 

note. 
Corneille :  18,  24,  46,  note. 


Cousin,  M.:  46,  63,  110,  note;  227, 

note. 
Coustel  or  Coutel :  12,  41,  210,  note ; 

211,  note. 

Descartes:  10,  11,  17,  18,  27,  28,  29 

and  note  ;  30,  65,   96,  note ;  193 

seq.,  196  seq.,  215,  note. 
Desmarets  de  Saint-Sorlin :  247  and 

note. 

Despautere  :  14,  157,  note. 
Diez:  17. 
Diibner:  15. 
Duclos:  17,  111,  notes. 
DufossiS :  7,  48,  49,  note. 
Du  Fargis,  Mile  :  54,  note. 
Duguet :  59,  note. 
Du  Marsais:  17. 
Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  see  Saint- 

Cyran :  1. 

Egger,  M.:  14,  15,  113,  note. 
Elboeuf,  Mile,  d':  225,  note. 
Elzevier,  Daniel :  18. 
Embrun  (Abp.  of) :  44. 
Epictetus :    10,    95,   note ;    Pascal's 

opinion  of,  97  seq. 
Epicurus :  27. 

Escobar :  36,  54,  56,  248  and  note. 
Espinoy,   M.  d':    81  and  note  ;  see 

also  Saint- Ange  (the  young). 

Fayette,  Mme.  de  la :  24,  34,  39. 
Fenelon:  14,  18,  note;  on  eloquence, 

144,  note ;  id.  147,  note ;  definition 

of  the  world,  245,  note. 
Fermat :  96,  note. 
Fleurv,  Card.:  67. 
Fludd,  Robert :  135  and  note. 
Foix,  Mme.  de :  53,  note  ;  65,  note. 
Fontaine  (Nicolas) :  2,  8 ;  description 

of  de  Saci,  10,  20,  93,  note  ;  208, 

note ;  243,  note. 
Fontaine,  Mme.  de  :  232,  note. 
Fontpertuis,  Mme.  de :  21,  note. 
Fouruel,  M.  V.:  39. 
Francois  de  Sales  :  60. 
Franklin  :  125,  213. 
Fromageau,  Abb6 :  47. 
Furetiere :  253,  note. 
Furstemberg,  Card.:  4l. 

Galen  :   195,  196,  note. 
Galileo:  29. 


258 


Port-Royal  Education. 


Garasse,  Father :  23,  note. 

Gassendi :  27, 135,  note  ;  215,  note. 

Gerberon  :  66,  note. 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  St. :  6. 

Grignan,  Mme.  de :  64,  109,  note. 

Grimarest :  215,  note. 

Grimm :  17. 

Guedreville,  De  :  47. 

Guenegaut,  Mme.  de :  63. 

Guise,  Due  de  :  79. 

—  Duchesse  de  :  4,  79. 

Gui  Patin  :  60,  note  ;  135,  notes. 

Guy  Joly :  63,  note. 

Guyot :    4,   6,  12 ;   his  translations, 

41,  42  and  note  ;  159,  note  ;  160, 

note. 

Hamon,    M.,    physician:    97,    243, 

note. 

Harcourt,  D':  63. 
Harlai  (Abp.  of  Paris) :  44. 
Harvey,  physician  :  141,  note  ;   195, 

196,  note. 

Hecquet,  physician  :  243,  note. 
Hement,  M.  Felix  :  173,  note. 
Hippocrates,  195. 
Hocquincourt,  Marquis  d':  59. 
Huet:  27. 
Hufeland :  5. 
Humboldt:  17. 
Huyghens  :  96,  note  ;  195  and  note. 

Innocent  X  :  60,  note. 

James  II.:  21,  note. 

Jansenius  (Cornelius,  Bp.  of  Ypres) : 

11,  43,  note  ;  57,  60,  66,  note  ;  83, 

note. 
Joubert :   11,  36,  note  ;  his  estimate 

of  Balzac,  85,  note. 
Jurieu :  27,  44. 

Kepler :  135,  note. 

La  Boetie :  40. 

La  Bruyere:  23,  40,  43,  note;  151, 

note  ;  215,  note. 
La   Fontaine :    20 ;    the   Horoscope, 

130,  note. 

La  Marans  :  32,  note. 
Lamoignon,    Sister    Louise  —  Saint- 

Praxede  de  :  46,  note. 


Lancelot,  Claude :  1,  2,  3,  and  note; 
4,  6 ;  pedagogic  directions,  7,  8, 12 ; 
enters  Port-Royal,  13  ;  publishes 
Latin  Grammar,  id. ,  Greek  Gram- 
mar, 14  ;  his  opinion  on  Janua 
linguarum,  15  ;  Grammaire  gene- 
rale,  17  and  note  ;  ,  Italian  and 
Spanish  Grammars  under  the  name 
of  M.  de  Trigny,  id. ;  declines  to 
write  a  French  Grammar,  18,  19  ; 
publishes  four  treatises  on  poetry, 
20 ;  end  of  his  pedagogic  career,  21 ; 
his  exile  and  death,  id.  and  note, 
41,  62,  70,  note ;  73,  note ;  81, 
note ;  82,  note ;  83  note ;  117, 
note  ;  204,  note. 

La  Rochefoucauld  :  35,  40. 

Launoi,  M.  de :  136,  note. 

Lavaur  (Bp.  of) :  44. 

Leclerc  :  50,  54,  note  ;  225,  note. 

Legouve,  M.,  his  defence  of  Cicero, 
178,  note. 

Leibnitz,  his  objections  to  Descartes' 
philosophy,  27  and  note;  his  opinion 
of  the  Jesuits  as  educators,  59,  note. 

Le  Maistre,  J.:  34. 

Lemaitre  (Antoine) :  5,  note ;  7,  41, 
51,  70,  note ;  85,  note  ;  95,  note. 

Lemoine :  27,  44,  193,  note. 

Le  Nain  de  Tillemont :  45. 

Leo  X.:  146,  note. 

Le  Tellier  :  12,  218,  note. 

Lipsius,  173. 

Littre,  17. 

Locke,  5,  93,  note. 

Longueville,  Mme.  de :  62,  63  and 
note  ;  86,  note. 

Louis  XIII.:  129,  note. 

Louis  XIV.:  62,  63,  90,  note;  117, 
note. 

Lucian :  80,  note. 

Luines,  Due  de  :  44,  63. 

Luther:  62. 

Maimbourg,  Jesuit :  44. 

Maintenon,  Mme.  de :  4,  note  ;  her 
opinion  on  the  books  of  Port- Royal, 
19,  51,  55  and  note;  relates  two 
anecdotes  56,  62 ;  sets  writing 
copies,  159,  note ;  170,  note ; 
advice  to  teachers,  201,  note,  and 
209,  note  ;  224,  note  ;  228,  note  ; 
230,  note ;  232,  note  ;  235,  note  ; 
245,  note. 


Index. 


259 


Malebranche:  44,  147,  note. 

Mallet,  M.:  218. 

Marcus  Aurelius  :  97,  note. 

Maria  Teresa,  Donna:  17. 

Marie,  Mme.  de  la:  4,  note ;  209,  note. 

Martha,  M.:  97,  note. 

Martin,    Henri,   method    of    Saint- 

Cyran,  65. 
Maurepas :  67. 
Me'gret,  Louis:  18,  note. 
Melanchthon  :  80,  note. 
Manage,  M.  :  16  and  note. 
Mersenne,  Father  :  27,  29,  96,  note  ; 

135,  note. 
Michelet:  46. 
Minucius  Felix  :  180,  note. 
Mirabeau  :  46,  note. 
Mirandola,  Francis  Picus  :  146. 
Moliere :  51,  note  ;  129,  note  ;  215, 

note. 
Montaigne  :  5,  10,  32,  note  ;  40,  93, 

note  ;  Pascal's  opinion  of,  97  seq., 

132,  199,  note. 
Montmorency,  Constable   Anne  de : 

230,  note. 
Morel  :  44. 

Nerveze,  De  :  253  and  note. 

Nicole:  12,  21,  22;  his  prejudice 
against  ancient  literature,  23 ; 
criticism  on  French  literature,  24  ; 
his  literary  taste,  25  ;  Logic,  26, 
28,  31  ;  Essais  de  morale,  32  seq.  ; 
education  of  a  prince,  40,  41,  43, 
44,  46,  59,  note ;  62,  89,  note ; 
130,  note  ;  132,  note  ;  167,  note  ; 
172,  note  ;  176,  note  ;  on  study  of 
rhetoric,  177,  192,  note ;  197, 
note  ;  204,  note  ;  213,  note  ;  235, 
note ;  247,  note ;  reply  to  Des- 
marets,  248. 

Nouet:  44. 

Olivet,  Abbe  d' :  25. 
Olympia,  Signora  :  60,  note, 
Origen  :  83  and  note. 

Pallu,  physician  :  243,  note. 
Palsgrave,    French    Grammar:    18. 

note. 

Paracelsus,  physician  :  135  and  note. 
Pascal :   10,   19  ;   Pens6es,  24  ;   their 

style  corrected,  25,  32  and  note  ; 

36,  note  ;  39,  40,  44,  45,  59,  note; 


85,  note  ;  at  Port-Royal,  95  seq.  ; 

his  method  of  reading,  110,  note; 

138,  note;  139,  note;  145,  note; 

Nicole's  opinion   on   the   Pensees, 

179,  208,  note  ;  244,  note. 
Pascal,    Jacqueline    (Sister    Sainte- 

Euphe'mie)  :    50,   53  ;    Port-Royal 

method    of   reading,    110,   note ; 

226,  note. 

Pasquier,  Etienne  :  71,  note. 
Pasquin :  60,  note. 
Passart,  Sister  Flavie  :  247  and  note. 
Perdreau,  Sister  Marie -Doro the" e :  49, 

75,  note. 
Perefixe  (Archbishop  of  Paris) :    44, 

56. 

Perrier,  M.  :  25. 
Pestalozzi :  93,  note. 
Petau,  Father :  19,  44. 
Philip  II.  :  202,  note. 
Pibrac,  M.   de,   his  quatrains :    199 

and  note. 
Plato:  207. 
Plautus:  201. 
Pliny  the  Younger,  his  letters  :  178, 

244,  note. 
Plutarch  :  32  note. 
Pomponne,  M.  Arnauld  de:  46,  note. 
Ptolemy:  195  and  note. 

Quesnel,  Father :  22. 
Quintilian:    13,  14,   125,   179,   210, 
note. 

Rabelais  :  5,  93,  note. 

Racine  (Jean) :  8,  15,  20,  24,  45,  47, 

48,  59,  63,  204,  note ;  243,  note  ; 

249,  note. 

—  (Bonaventure),  Abbe  :  45,  note. 
Ramus :    14  ;   French  Grammar,  18, 

note ;  134,  note. 
Ranee,  De :  60. 
Rapin,  Father:   2,  14,  note;  19,  22, 

52,  55,  62  and  note ;  64,  67,  92, 

note. 

Raymond  of  Sabunde:  101  and  note. 
Renan,  M  :  63. 

Retz,  Card,  de  :  62,  63  and  note. 
Richelieu  :    3,  69,  note  ;    78,   note  ; 

82,  97,  note. 
Rivet,  D.:  49. 
Roberval :  96,  note. 
Rollin  :  17,  40,  125,  note  ;  207,  note. 


26o 


Port-Royal  Education. 


Rousseau  :  5,  6  ;  negative  education, 
71,  note  ;  93,  note ;  234,  note. 

Sabl^,  Mme.  de :  28,  note. 

Saci,  Louis- Isaac  Lemaitre  de  (brother 
of  Antoine  Lemaitre) :  3,  note  ; 
6  ;  his  poetical  talent,  8  seq. ;  his 
translation  of  the  Bible,  11,  21, 
59,  note  ;  62  and  note  ;  70,  note  ; 
73,  note ;  82 ;  Patience  and  silence, 
92,  93,  note  ;  96  seq.,  197,  note  ; 
208,  note. 

—  M.  Sylvestre  de  :  40. 

Sainte- Agnes  de  Feron,  Sister  Eliza- 
beth de :  50. 

Sainte  -  Aldegonde  des  Pommares, 
Sister  Marie  de  ;  49. 

Saint- Ange,  M.  de :  81,  note. 

—  (the  young) :  7.    See  also  Espinoy. 

Saint-Amour,  Dr.:  18. 

Sainte-Beuve  :  11  ;  Lancelot's  incon- 
sistency, 20,  45,  46,  note ;  95, 
note  ;  97,  note. 

—  Jacques  de  :  89  and  note. 
Saint-Cyran,  Abbe  de :   his  ideas  on 

education,  1  seq.,  13,  21,  23,  43 
and  note;  46,  note;  50,  55,  57, 
59,  note ;  60,  62,  65,  69,  notes, 
et  seq. ;  on  corporal  punishment, 
75  and  note;  221,  note;  231, 
note  :  241,  note  ;  244,  note  ;  246. 

Sainte-Domitille,  Sister  Jeanne  de  : 
54,  note. 

Saint- Evremond  :  59. 

Saint-Pierre,  Abbe  de  :  24. 

Sainte-Suzanne.  Sister  :  97,  note. 

Salle,  Father  de  la:  210,  note;  211, 
note. 

Sanctius :  14,  note. 

Scaliger,  Julius  Caesar:  113,  note; 
114  and  note. 

Scioppius :  14,  note. 

Sebastian,  King  of  Portugal :  202  and 
note. 

Seneca:  178,  179,  180,  note;  209. 
t  Senecey,  Marquis  de  :  63. 

Sevigne" ,  Marquis  de :  24,  32,  note  ; 
63. 


Sevigne,  Mme.  de :  16  and  note,  21  ; 
her  admiration  of  Nicole,  31,  32, 
34  ;  her  criticism  of  Nicole,  35 
seq.,  39,  40,  63,  note  ;  64,  66,  109, 
note;  171,  note;  249,  note. 

Simon,  Richard:  44. 

Singlin,  Abbe",  3,  8,  21,  22,  50,  62, 
63,  note  ;  74  and  note  ;  82,  and 
Pascal,  96,  226. 

Sirmond,  Jesuit :  44. 

Socrates,  Nicole's  opinion  of,  28. 

Spencer,  234,  note. 

Stenon:  195,  196,  note. 

Sully- Prudhomme,  M.:  38. 

Tetu,  Abbe* :  32,  note. 

Theodosius  the  Great :  71,  note. 

Thou,  De :  199,  note. 

Torricelli :  96,  note. 

Tracy,  De  :  17. 

Trigny,  M.  de  :  17  ;  see  Lancelot. 

Tycho  Brahe :  195  and  note. 


Vabres  (Bp.  of) :  44. 

Valant,  M.:  122. 

Van-Helmont :  135  and  note. 

Vanini:  29. 

Varin :  76,  note. 

Vaucel,  M.  du:  21,  note  ;  249,  note. 

Vaugelas  :  18,  note  ;  84,  note  ;  144. 

Vauvenargues :  40. 

Vavasseur,  Father :  25. 

Vergara :  14. 

Villeneuve,    M.    de:    81;    see    also 

Andilly,  D'. 
Villeroi:  63. 

Vincent  de  Paul :  2,  60  and  note. 
Virgil:  6,  73. 
Vitard,  M.:  13. 
Vives,  Luis  :  138,  note. 
Voltaire :  21,  40,  45. 
Vossius  :  14  and  note. 

Wallon  de  Beaupuis,  M  :  12,  42. 
Willis,  physician  :  196  and  note. 


Ypres^ 


Jansenius. 


W.  Brendon  and  Son, 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 
or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 
2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 

(415)642-6233 
1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing  books 

to  NRLF 
Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4  days 

prior  to  due  date 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


MAY  2  9  1839 


1994 


•  .  ?  ? 


APR  Q5  1996 


REC.MOFFiTT 


28 


U.  C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


